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2021 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

2. Energy Carriers and Supply Chains

verfasst von : Machiel Mulder

Erschienen in: Regulation of Energy Markets

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Knowledge of the physical characteristics of energy and the various types of activities within energy supply chains is necessary before being able to analyse the optimal regulation of energy markets. Therefore, this chapter introduces the various types of energy carriers, distinguishing primary from secondary carriers and non-renewable from renewable sources (Sect. 2.2). This chapter also discusses the concept of the energy balance, which describes the origins of supply and the destinations of use of energy within an economy. The chapter proceeds by describing the various layers in the supply chains, starting from exploration of energy resources, production, conversion, storage, transport until consumption of energy (Sect. 2.3). This chapter concludes by discussing how these energy supply chains of activities can be organized (Sect. 2.4).

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Vorheriges Kapitel Economic Analysis of Energy Markets: An Introduction

Nächstes Kapitel Energy Markets and Energy Policies

Nur mit Berechtigung zugänglich

See https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/energy/u5l1e.cfm.

GJ is 10⁹ J and MJ is 10⁶ J. See Appendix 1 for the definition and units of energy. As crude oil and natural gas are natural products, the precise contents and energy value vary across types of oil and gas. The energy contents mentioned here are defined by convention. See for further conversions: https://www.iea.org/statistics/resources/unitconverter/.

Note that physically, energy always remains in one or the other form.

As efficiency is defined as the ratio between the energy content of the useful output versus the energy content of the input, it is key to define what is defined as useful. In this respect, one has to define how the energy content of residuals is treated. In the case of heating, the distinction between Lower Heating Value (LHV) and Higher Heating Value (HHV) is relevant. LHV refers to the energy value of the useful output not taken into account the energy content of the water vapour and other gases like carbon dioxide (CO₂) resulting from the conversion process, while HHV includes this energy content as well.

Eurostat, Energy Balance Guide, 31 January 2019.

Mtoe stands for million tons of oil equivalents, which is the standardized heating value of one tonne of crude oil. See Appendix 1.

When coal is used for heating purposes in the electricity or industry, it is called steaming or thermal coal, while coal that is used in the steel industry is called metallurgical or coking coal.

The share of lignite in the electricity generation by steaming coal in the OECD is about 15% (IEA 2019).

WTI stands for West Texas Intermediate and refers to oil from Texas and Southern Oklahoma. Brent refers to the oil from about 15 different fields in the North Sea.

The molecular mass of natural gas is 17 gr/mol, while the molecular mass of dry air is 29 g/mol, which gives the gravity of natural gas of 17/29 = 0.59. The unit ‘mol’ is a constant and equal to 6,022 14 × 10²³ and refers to the number of particles (such as molecules and atoms) in one mole of a chemical compound in grams (e.g. one mol of water is 18 gr.).

Nm³ refers to m³ in normal (standardized) circumstances.

The Groningen field has a higher nitrogen (14.2%) content compared to other European gas sources, such as Russian or Norwegian gas (ca. 2%). The natural gas that is produced from the Groningen gas field is therefore qualified as L-gas, referring to low-calorific gas. The Wobbe index of this gas is about 44.

The chemical formula is: CO₂ + 4H₂ → CH₄ + 2H₂O. This process is the so-called Sabatier reaction.

The chemical process of Steam Methane Reforming is: CH₄ + H₂O → CO + 3H₂. Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is produced when the carbon monoxide (CO) reacts in an additional water–gas shift reaction: CO + H₂O → CO₂ + H₂.

The chemical process of electrolysis is: 2H₂O → 2H₂ + O₂.

This chemical process is 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O + energy. In this way, fuel cells can be used to produce electricity.

The conversion of these primary energy sources into electricity occurs in a number of steps (Schavemaker and Sluis 2017). First, the chemical energy of the primary sources are transformed into thermal energy through combustion (in the case of coal and gas) or fission (in the case of nuclear). This thermal energy is used to produce high-temperature steam under a high pressure. When this steam is released in the turbine, it is transferred into mechanical energy and when this energy passes the turbine blades the turbines is set in motion. This motion in turn is converted into electrical energy.

This potential to produce labour (i.e. the power) is expressed in Watt, while energy is expressed in Joule. By definition, 1 W of power is equal to 1 J of energy per second.

See for more details on the physics of electricity: https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/circuits/Lesson-1/Electric-Field-and-the-Movement-of-Charge.

The ability of electricity plants to produce electricity (i.e. their power) is usually expressed in MW, which is equal to 10⁶ J/s or 1 MJ/s, while the costs and prices of electricity are expressed per MWh, which is equal to 1 MJ × 3600 s, which is 3600 MJ or 3.6 GJ.

Renewable power is also generated from hydroelectric power, biomass, geothermal and tidal energy. The current energy transition, though, focuses on electricity generated from wind and solar energy in particular.

Although investments themselves are no costs, but only expenditures, during the lifetime of using the assets they are turned into costs through depreciation and costs of capital. Hence, as the LCOE is directed at the total lifetime costs, the investment sum can be treated as costs as well.

In everyday language, this calculation (which is called discounting) is meant to correct for the interest rate: one Euro today has a higher value than one Euro next year because you can put the Euro now on, for instance, a savings account and receive interest. See further on this issue Sect. 6.5.

The resistivity is expressed in Ohm (ohm metre). The value of pure copper is 1.7 × 10⁻⁸.

In this book, we will only use the term resistance, acknowledging that in AC systems this refers to the broader concept of impedance.

In an AC system, the current is moving forward and backwards in a fixed frequency (50 Hz in Europe and 60 Hz in among others the USA). In a three-phase AC system, there are three currents having the same frequency but in a different phase. The phase difference is one-third, which means that the oscillations of each current is 120° (i.e. 1/3 of 360°) before and after the other ones. An advantage of this delay in phases is that the transfer of power is more constant.

The price elasticity of a commodity is generally negative as a higher price of a commodity in most cases implies that less consumers are prepared to buy the commodity. This negative price elasticity is reflected by the downward sloping character of the demand curve. This is further explained in Sect. 4.2.

Barbose, G., Darghouth, N., & Wiser, R. (2010). Tracking the Sun III: The installed costs of photovoltaics in the U.S. from 1998–2009. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, USA, December.

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BP (2019). BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 69th edition.

Creti, A., & Fontini, F. (2019). Economics of electricity: Markets, competition and rules. Cambridge University Press.

Dismukes, D. E., & Upton, G. B. (2015). Economies of scale, learning effects and offshore wind development costs. Renewable Energy, 83, 61–66.CrossRef

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Frauenhofer, I. S. E. (2018). Levelized cost of electricity: Renewable energy technologies. Freiburg: Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems.

IEA (2019). Electricity Information 2019, International Energy Agency.

Labandeira, X., et al. (2017). A meta-analysis on the price elasticity of energy demand, Energy Policy, 102, 549–568.

Martinot, E. (2015). How is Germany integrating and balancing renewable energy today? Education Article, January.

Peng, X. D. (2012). Analysis of the Thermal Efficiency Limit of the Steam Methane Reforming Process. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research, 51, 16385–16392.CrossRef

Schavemaker, P., & van der Sluis, L. (2017). Electrical power system essentials (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley.

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Titel: Energy Carriers and Supply Chains
verfasst von: Machiel Mulder
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Buch: Regulation of Energy Markets
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-58318-7

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-030-58319-4

Copyright-Jahr: 2021
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58319-4_2

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