Environmental Concerns and Sustainable Development

The improvement of crop production is nowadays of utmost importance to feed the growing world’s population. Crop yield is enhanced with good pest control. However, an inadequate use of pesticides with this aim has demonstrated along the history that has deleterious effects for the human and animal health and the environment. Therefore, the use and commercialization of pesticides should be regulated properly, in order to only put on the market pesticides that have demonstrated by their risk assessment a safe use. The use of nonexperimental methods during pesticide risk assessment to predict physicochemical properties and biological effects, i.e., (eco)toxicity of concern, and to avoid tests on vertebrate animals is gaining strength within well-developed pesticide legislations.

European Regulation (EC) No. 1107/2009 promotes the competitiveness of agriculture in this region. Quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSARs) are great accepted tools to be used with classical pesticide risk assessment. In a general way, there are QSAR modeling methods for qualitative or/and quantitative issues. The predictive capability of the resultant QSAR models can only be stabilized by performing an external validation. Quantum chemistry (QC) has shown to be an appropriate tool to characterize the structure and relative stabilities of organic compounds isomers. Degradation processes pathways can also be studied using QC. Quantum descriptors can be an excellent option for QSAR development. However, new technologies used in agriculture such as nanopesticides force a revision of the QSAR and QC suitability.

Urban and agricultural areas are highly anthropogenically devastated environments with diversely and densely distributed pollution sources. These usually highly populated and cultivated areas together represent a big part of the Earth’s surface, and it is of crucial interest to monitor and control presumably high air pollution in these areas. Complex urban topography demands a high density of air quality monitoring stations while extensive and frequent agrochemical treatments in cultivated areas require repetitive measurements of pollution at the same site. The application of moss bags represents an easy-to-apply screening technique which has been used for biomonitoring of air pollutants. The technique has been mainly developed for application in areas where the naturally growing biomonitors are absent. It is successfully used for biomonitoring of potentially toxic elements including rare earth elements (PTEs) and persistent organic compounds, mostly polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). In the last decade, we investigated crucial variables of the moss bag technique application (species-specific, time- and site-dependent pollutant enrichment) through a series of studies performed in the urban area of Belgrade and agricultural areas in Serbia. Starting from 2005, we have examined the moss bag technique for biomonitoring of PTEs at specifically polluted sites within the city such as crossroads, street canyons, tunnel and garages and, finally, overall city area. Thereafter, since 2015, we tested the technique application in conventional and organic vineyards. The interchangeable use of two moss species, Sphagnum girgensohnii (a species of the most recommended biomonitoring genus) and Hypnum cupressiforme (commonly available in Serbia), for performing the biomonitoring of PTEs was discussed in the studies. The results showed that the studied moss species could not be interchangeably used for airborne element assessment, except for Cr, Cu and Sb. In the urban area, 2-month bag exposure ensures accumulation of the elements and adequate replicability of the results even at air pollution background sites. Otherwise, in the agricultural area, this period does not guarantee detectable element moss load if the bag exposure does not coincide with the agrochemical application time (which is variable in different vineyards). Hence, in a vineyard ambient, moss bags should be exposed during the whole grapevine season comprising unpredictable treatments of grapevine during the vegetation season. The moss bag technique enables uniformly biomonitoring of the air pollutants over all anthropogenically devastated areas since successfully overcomes the issue of lack naturally growing mosses.

This chapter focuses on biomonitoring of air quality using lichens in the industrial, urban and suburban areas in cities and in the vicinity of pollution sources, mainly based on the studies carried out in the last decades. Also lichen diversity studies in natural areas and in polluted sites, analytical methods and statistical analyses used in these studies are discussed. In addition, the text covers complementary information on the subject, for instance, environmental and anthropogenic factors which are effective on pollution sensitivity of lichen communities, negative effects of pollution on structure of lichen, metal uptake mechanisms and comparative analysis of data relating to changes in lichen vitality parameters. In particular, it is emphasized how to utilize the lichens featuring bioindicators and biomonitors to determine air quality in terms of quantities and impacts of airborne pollutants such as sulphur dioxide, heavy metals, particulate matters and radionuclides. With respect to lichen biomonitoring, the appropriate biological methods, their advantages and disadvantages, past to present studies on this subject in the world, the assessment of the relevant literature and the reliability of the obtained results are reviewed from a broad perspective. It is envisaged that this compilation will serve as a guiding source for biologic monitoring of air quality and creation of management and conservation strategies with lichens today.

In the recent past, a significant amount of pesticides has been used in the field of agriculture to increase the crop yield worldwide. Among pesticides, different types of pesticides have been used in agriculture; among them organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) contribute a significant proportion. Application of OCPs in the agricultural field facilities increased production, but due to the lipid-soluble nature, pesticides enter the food chain and become available to human beings. Being very economical and effective against pests, earlier OCPs were effectively used worldwide to combat plague, malaria and typhus. However, after the Second World War, scientific community noticed the adverse impact of these pesticides on the human health. At the Stockholm Convention, the use of 12 persistent organic pollutants (POPs) was completely banned for agriculture. Despite the ban on POPs, their residual levels are still being detected in various environmental matrices due to environmental persistence and long-distance transport of these chemicals. The concentration of atmospheric OCPs is determined in different steps, viz., extraction, cleaning, analysis, and quantification. Quantification studies have revealed that the highest concentration of OCPs is still detected in developing countries including India and China besides several developed countries. Severe exposure to OCPs can lead to cancers and can also affect the pulmonary and nervous system to aggravate Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases. For sustainable development, the use of synthetic chemical pesticides should be reduced, and the use biopesticides should be recommended for increased production.

Pollution caused by vehicles and its rapidly growing number is a serious concern all over the world. Vehicular pollution is primarily known for emitting various kinds of organic and inorganic gaseous pollutants in to the atmosphere, but recent studies show that vehicles are one of the chief sources of creating heavy metal pollution in an urban environment via processes like exhaust of diesel and petrol, corrosion of metallic parts, engine wear, tyre and brake pad wear and road surface degradation due to vehicular movement. Studies show that apart from fuel burning, tyre and brake wear particles lead the contribution of heavy metals into an urban environment. Due to easy availability and low cost, two wheelers dominate the road traffic and become a major source of air pollution in most of the developing countries. Heavy metals emitted in ambient air ultimately get deposited on other environmental component like hydrosphere and lithosphere which ultimately affect flora and fauna living in it. Some heavy metals are able to create toxicity at low level of exposure, and metals like nickel, cadmium and chromium are able to produce carcinogenicity in humans. Meteorological and geographical conditions of an area play a major role in distribution and deposition of heavy metals. There is an urgent need to make an effective environmental management plan for urban areas which include promotion of new technologies, adaption of biofuels, green belt development and public participation.

The study investigated the changes in the antioxidative metabolism of the aquatic macrophytes (Phragmites communis Trin., Utricularia vulgaris L. and Salvinia natans (L.) All.) in the area of the Bardača ponds in order to determine the response of plants to different conditions in the living environment during one growing period (May–October). The studies included physicochemical analysis of water and determination of the activity of peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase, ascorbate peroxidase and catalase in the leaves of Phragmites communis Trin., Utricularia vulgaris L. and Salvinia natans (L.) All. The obtained results showed increased activity of peroxidase, catalase and polyphenol oxidase and decreased activity of ascorbate peroxidase with senescence in all three plant species. Changes in enzyme activity during the season did not show the same trend and varied significantly in relation to the investigated species. Also, it is important to emphasize that the investigations of antioxidative metabolism of selected plant species are among the first to be made in natural conditions and showed that the aquatic macrophytes represent good bioindicators of the aquatic habitat.

Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) is very unique to observe changes in distribution of land water storage from plant canopy to the aquifer. GRACE data gives idea about the regional changes in stored water. The groundwater withdrawal from aquifers in the entire state of Uttar Pradesh with an emphasis on the Lucknow district was studied with the help of the GRACE data and simulated soil moisture (SM) from Global Land Data Assimilation System (GLDAS). The time-series analysis of Lucknow district indicates declining trend of groundwater with mean depletion rate of 1.46 ± 0.74 cm/year. The rest of the parameters like soil moisture, rainfall, and terrestrial water storage do not show continuously declining trend. This indicates groundwater extraction at a faster rate than its recharge. To visualize the seasonal changes in groundwater storage of Uttar Pradesh from 2003 to 2012; pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon maps were generated, to represent the overall decreasing trend. The average volumetric groundwater storage loss for the Lucknow district was found to be 0.37 km³. A positive correlation was found between GRACE-derived results and observed water-level data of CGWB (Central Ground Water Board). It is evident from the results that remote sensing is an effective tool to interpolate observed regional groundwater data of wells and to improve estimations of groundwater storage.

Most of the major river basins throughout the world are under stress due to cumulative impact of droughts, over-allocation of water resources and water quality deterioration. Various previous and ongoing water resource development projects have caused both short-term and long-term ecological degradation resulting in interrupted fluxes of water, sediment and nutrition and declining river health across all the river basins. It is evident that most of the key manipulations of flow regimes are associated with in-channel large dams that are designed to store water during the wet season and deliver it downstream or off-stream as and when required. A lot of scientific studies are in progress to understand the fragile river ecosystem and to mitigate the adverse ecological impacts. A broad general agreement has emerged from all these scientific discussions, to protect fresh water biodiversity as well as maintain the ecosystem services by maintaining natural flow variability or keeping flow regimes similar to natural flows. The best ecological outcomes in a river basin result from conditions when environmental water passes through rivers and associated wetlands in ways that they mimic natural conditions. With this shift in thinking, a broader ‘riverine ecosystem’ perspective on assessment of instream environment came up, which gradually switched to more inclusive terms such as ‘environmental water allocation’ and ‘environmental flows’. Various studies undertaken to measure and implement environmental flows indicate that key to improving rivers’ health is maintaining more natural and variable flows including good water quality. This paper focuses on three things: firstly, the effects of hydrological alterations on Indian river ecosystems as well as from other countries; secondly, the science and management of environmental flows to sustain the river ecosystems; and thirdly, the need of strong legislature in developing nation’s water framework directives. This study also indicates that there is considerable opportunity for improving the data gathering techniques and the overall methodology for the environmental flow assessment.

Water security has become an issue of concern for the Punjab state in northwest India due to depletion of water levels on account of over-exploitation of groundwater, deterioration of groundwater quality due to both geogenic and anthropogenic sources and waterlogging and salinization in southwest parts. All these problems would effect and decrease the future water supplies because 90% of the drinking water supply in the state is based on groundwater. In the present chapter, major problems in relation to water security are discussed along with the management tools such as rainwater harvesting, water conservation, and recycling and reuse of waste water, besides the use of reverse osmosis technology for removal of uranium and arsenic from groundwater to enhance the water security.

The continued population expansion with limited resources on the planet earth deteriorated the quality of the environment. To manage the water resources at regional, national and global level, the input-output models of water footprinting (WFP) in relation to the water use and consumed are taken as an objective for this chapter. Types of WFP, assessment for industrial wastewater footprinting (IWFP), associated risks with WFP and water security for sustainable growth and economy with social impacts are critically reviewed and assessed here in this chapter. Furthermore, water polices in an Indian context are also delineated to impact its role in sustainable green water footprinting (GrWFP).

Uncontaminated water is the prime requirement of drinking water and lifeline of living organisms. Although some of the minerals are essential for growth and healthy development, excessive buildup of these minerals, viz. fluoride, can pose a great health risk to flora and fauna. Fluoride is a vital element for developments and strengthens of teeth and bones, but its elevated levels are associated with many incurable negative health effects reported on human and animals in all over India. The dental caries causes due to very low concentration of fluoride < 0.5 mg/L in drinking water and excessive fluoride (> 1.5 mg/L) also causes to dental fluorosis, skeletal fluorosis and neurotoxin effect, muscles degeneration, gastrointestinal system, reproductive system, etc. The effects of fluoride illness are more prevalent in children than adults. Therefore preliminary knowledge becomes necessary for everyone to know about the fluoride concentration in the drinking water, daily diets and other environmental matrix to avoid chronic fluoride diseases. The foremost sources of fluoride in groundwater are geogenic in origin, but the secondary sources are industrial activity like phosphate fertilizers, coal-based power plant and ceramic and glass industry. The higher concentrations of fluoride have been reported in Rajasthan (0.2–69.0 mg/L), Haryana (0.17–48 mg/L), Delhi (0.4–32 mg/L), Gujarat (1.58–31 mg/L) and Assam (0.2–23 mg/L). This chapter covers the fluoride-related issues and discusses the magnitude of problems those occurring in India and possible preventive measures and preventive programmes initiated by the Government of India.

Overpopulation day by day promotes industrial revolution, and manufacturing processes have become more efficient and productive, science has become much more advanced, and our life has changed a great deal. For water pollution and scarcity, many sources are responsible such as industrial wastewater, domestic sewage, storm water runoff, septic tanks water and agricultural practices. Out of which, industries play a key role and also release various toxic chemicals, organic and inorganic matters or sludge, radioactive sludge, sulphur, asbestos, poisonous solvents, polychlorinated biphenyl, lead, mercury, nitrates, phosphates, acids, alkalies, dyes, pesticides, benzene, chlorobenzene, carbon tetrachloride, toluene and volatile organic chemicals. These wastes when discharged into the water ecosystem without adequate treatment become very unhealthy for any type of human and other use. The industrial wastewater is responsible for many diseases such as anaemia, low blood platelets, headaches, risk for cancer, many skin diseases, etc. To prevent such type of issues, effective treatment technology, adequate treatment, water reuse, desalination, infrastructure repair and maintenance, water conservation and also strict pollution control law and legislation and their proper implementation do play an important role.

Water is a precious natural resource for supporting life on earth, without which life is not possible. Water is necessary for all the development activities of human civilization, such as agriculture, industry, electricity production, and transportation. Owing to its multiple benefits, it should be conserved, as it is becoming scarce in certain places. In India, a water policy is necessary for the management and planning of water resource projects and for sustainable environmental considerations in regard to both quantity and quality aspects. Natural disasters affect people’s livelihoods and cause socioeconomic losses. Rainfall, which varies from heavy to scanty in different parts of India, is an important part of the Indian economy. Flood and drought are the most severe natural disasters that occur due to irregular rainfall and climate change during the monsoon season. A river-linking plan is one of the best ways to improve water management and flood and drought control in India. Therefore, it is necessary to link all the rivers to fulfill the water needs of the basins that have a water deficit. The Indian government has proposed about 30 Inter-Basin Water Transfer Links over 37 rivers to study and implement a river interlinking plan in the country. The proposed river interlinking development component aims to provide water resource benefits, including increased water availability for irrigation; the recharging of groundwater; employment generation; and improvements in irrigation, power, education, water availability, water quality, agriculture, occupational choices, family income, industry, flood status, drainage systems, tourism, soils, fisheries, public health status, and other socioeconomic aspects. This chapter highlights the importance of the water resource management plans in terms of the National Water Policies in India. The chapter also focuses on the role of large-scale water transfer links in the proper management of flood and drought disasters in India.

Burgeoning world population, climate change at a rapid rate, a huge shift in global financial systems, and international conflicts are some of the biggest obstacles of the twenty-first century in ensuring water security. Since the globe is interconnected, any adverse or negative changes in one part of the world have a cascading effect in other nations also, and India is no exception of it. India too faces the global as well as local challenges in tackling the water security issues. In recent years it has been realized that it is not the issue of population explosion, climate change, international conflicts, but a major part of the problem is corruption and poor governance. Hence, it is imperative that the utilization, allocation, distribution, exploitation, regeneration, and preservation of water are done at all levels and monitored at the highest level in transparent and logical way; this process must include the opinions of most of the stakeholders and policymakers alike to fulfill the demands of industry and individual to also preserve this precious resource. The issue of water security is not limited to availability only, but it goes beyond it, which ranges from the individual’s fundamental right to national sovereignty rights over water, and it also includes the role of government in equitable sharing and affordability of water.

Thus, there is a need to have an appropriate policy and legal framework to regulate and distribute water resources of India. Keeping this in mind, the current chapter comprehensively reviewed the role of policy in resolving various water-related issues in India and ensuring water security.

Energy is a form of power that we require to light our houses, buildings, offices, streets, to run our vehicles, to run industries, and for many other functions. There are two main sources of energy: renewable and nonrenewable. Our energy demands are mostly fulfilled by nonrenewable energy. Most of the nonrenewable energy we use comes from fossil fuels, such as coal, natural gas, and petroleum. Uranium is another nonrenewable source, but it is not a fossil fuel. Uranium is converted into a fuel and used in nuclear power plants. Once these energy sources are used up, they are gone forever. The combustion of fossil fuel releases a huge amount of greenhouse gases and this excessive amount leads to environmental concerns such as global warming and acid rain. Many renewable forms of energy are available, such as solar energy, wind energy, hydro energy, biomass energy, and geothermal energy. These are forms of energy that can be used over and over again, and produce less pollution during production and storage in comparison with non-renewable energy resources. Solar energy comes from the sun, wind energy is used to run windmills to produce electricity, hydro-energy is used to produce electricity by constructing dams on rivers. All these forms of energy no doubt fulfil our energy needs, but all of them have a negative side, which leads to environmental concerns because wherever these energy generation plants are launched, they disturb the local flora and fauna, and also affect the habitat of the local population. Now, rehabitation is becoming a social concern in those areas. This chapter focuses on different kinds of energy resources, their production, future prospects, and social and environmental concerns.

As the demand for energy increases, reserves of fossil fuels are steadily declining. The growing consumption of energy is responsible for the world’s dependence on non-renewable energy sources, such as petroleum, gas, and coal. The burning of fossil fuels increases greenhouse gases, resulting in increasing global temperatures. To overcome these problems, there is an urgent need for alternative and advanced fuels. Bioethanol, biodiesel, and biogas are the best fuels generated from biomass, and there are also emerging fuels that could minimize the overloading of non-renewable fuels and decrease pollution levels. Bioethanol is a plentiful new source of fuel for the future and has the capacity to conserve petroleum resources. Biodiesel is also clean and is generated from renewable sources. It can be used in diesel engines either directly or as an additive in diesel fuel. It has the capacity to replace petro-diesel fuel and to reduce pollution levels. Apart from biodiesel, hydrogen is also a clean source of energy and has huge potential to minimize the load of imported energy sources. Alternative fuel production and use play major roles in economic growth, biomass waste management, producing a cleaner environment, decreasing gaseous pollutants, and ultimately developing sustainability. This chapter discusses the energy problem, the current status of conventional fuel sources, and the role of alternative fuels in sustainable development.

Sustainable development becomes a need for economic growth of any country that allows the use of natural resources with minimum damage to our environment. The same is applied for the use of crude oil. The demand for crude oil can’t be denied as it is a major source of energy (production of electricity, cooking gas, and facilitating transportation) and raw materials for various petroleum products like solvents, fertilizers, plastics, paints, pesticides, etc. Development of remediation technology to remediate petroleum hydrocarbon-contaminated sites due to crude oil spillage during its transportation becomes essential as it contains various hazardous, toxic, and carcinogenic compounds. Compared to physical and chemical processes of remediation, bioremediation is a highly efficient and self-propelling economic process. This review article presented a brief discussion on development of bioremediation of petroleum hydrocarbon in soil or in water. This article especially emphasizes the inherent characteristics of microbes that facilitate the bioremediation and the use of different biostimulants for fastest remediation of petroleum hydrocarbon-contaminated sites.