1 Introduction
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Study area and data collection
Particulars | Karnal | Vaishali |
---|---|---|
Latitude | 29.6857° N | 25.6838° N |
Longitude | 76.9905° E | 85.3550° E |
Crops included in the study | Rice and wheat | Rice, wheat and maize |
Average annual rainfall (mm) | 669 | 1168 |
Agro-ecology | Warm arid and semiarid subtropics | Warm sub-humid subtropics |
Soil texture | Medium | Medium |
Soil pH | 6.4–8.2 | 7 |
Soil organic matter (%) | 0.41–0.72 | 0.72 |
Soil bulk density (Mg m−3) | 1.5 | 1.5 |
Soil CEC (cmolc kg−1) | 20.122–22.867 | 20.122 |
Rice area (ha) | 171,517 | 57,633 |
Wheat area (ha) | 171,412 | 48,136 |
Maize area (ha) | 287 | 33,939 |
2.2 Estimation of GHG emission and global warming potential
2.3 Identifying determinants of GHG emissions
3 Results
3.1 Grain yield
3.2 GHG emissions and GWP
3.3 Agronomic management and GHG emission
Management factors | Rice | Wheat | Maize | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CH4 | CO2 | N2O | Total GWP | CO2 | N2O | Total GWP | CO2 | N2O | Total GWP | |
Total nitrogen | −0.90*** | 3.92*** | 4.73*** | 7.75*** | 3.66*** | 4.77*** | 8.42*** | 3.86*** | 4.46*** | 8.31*** |
(0.12) | (0.05) | (0.04) | (0.13) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.08) | (0.10) | (0.11) | (0.21) | |
Zero tillage | −574.55*** | −584.38*** | −1.21 | −1160.15*** | −228.81*** | 4.73 | −224.08*** | |||
(10.02) | (22.61) | (4.00) | (18.80) | (7.60) | (4.40) | (10.83) | ||||
N split | 12.87*** | 51.64*** | 67.59*** | 132.10*** | 51.01*** | 61.66*** | 112.66*** | 52.32*** | 81.66*** | 133.98*** |
(4.84) | (4.16) | (4.70) | (9.19) | (4.13) | (5.28) | (9.31) | (8.96) | (11.35) | (20.17) | |
Manure | 9.31*** | −3.30*** | 0.77*** | 6.77*** | −3.61*** | 0.00 | 11.58*** | −3.71*** | 0.48 | 11.95*** |
(0.68) | (0.08) | (0.07) | (0.67) | (0.06) | (0.08) | (0.14) | (0.30) | (0.40) | (0.70) | |
Crop residue | 18.43*** | −16.03*** | −0.10 | 2.31* | −5.82*** | 0.49 | −5.33*** | −5.36* | −1.19 | −6.55 |
(1.21) | (0.53) | (0.31) | (1.21) | (0.33) | (0.30) | (0.59) | (3.07) | (4.29) | (7.32) | |
Constant | 1118.71*** | −149.18*** | −93.35*** | 876.19*** | −23.25*** | −84.47*** | −107.72*** | −36.18** | −92.75*** | −128.93*** |
(6.96) | (8.85) | (9.73) | (17.63) | (8.37) | (10.86) | (18.99) | (15.21) | (20.15) | (35.16) | |
R
2
| 0.70 | 0.94 | 0.97 | 0.95 | 0.97 | 0.98 | 0.98 | 0.94 | 0.94 | 0.96 |
No. of observation | 2120 | 2120 | 2120 | 2120 | 2075 | 2075 | 2075 | 369 | 369 | 369 |
3.4 GHG emission in relation to N input
3.5 Factors affecting N input, yield and GHG emission
Household characteristics | Rice | Wheat | Maize |
---|---|---|---|
General caste HH | 18.67 | 66.61 | −112.50 |
(36.58) | (52.00) | (170.65) | |
Male-headed HH | 168.14** | 82.87 | 604.11* |
(66.93) | (97.40) | (327.87) | |
Literate HH head | 120.46*** | 78.23 | −88.93 |
(38.12) | (53.94) | (164.85) | |
Literate spouse of HH head | −8.35 | 140.59** | −48.00 |
(39.08) | (55.26) | (170.72) | |
Family size | 2.87 | −17.74** | −49.09* |
(6.10) | (8.67) | (27.16) | |
Remittance received (in INRs) | 0.00 | 0.00** | 0.01*** |
(0.00) | (0.00) | (0.00) | |
Livestock owned (TLU) | −9.79 | 5.72 | −91.55 |
(11.24) | (15.90) | (92.82) | |
Cultivated land (in ha) | −8.78 | 0.92 | 498.04*** |
(6.07) | (8.22) | (137.46) | |
Credit access | −60.04* | −226.63*** | −608.15*** |
(34.07) | (48.58) | (142.84) | |
Tractor owned | −86.81 | 141.35 | −1135.66** |
(67.29) | (95.17) | (574.95) | |
Thresher owned | 572.23*** | 747.63*** | 1110.55 |
(157.48) | (221.00) | (903.21) | |
Training on climate change | 60.80 | 476.39* | 2418.61* |
(201.67) | (283.40) | (1391.42) | |
Training on soil and water management | 266.06 | −105.25 | −1616.14 |
(184.91) | (268.34) | (1219.35) | |
Training on seed management | 82.35 | 164.79 | . |
(83.87) | (117.63) | . | |
Training on crop rotations | −127.14*** | 110.11 | 155.43 |
(48.74) | (68.80) | (166.36) | |
Information obtained from extension service | 86.94 | −295.83** | −181.78 |
(106.04) | (146.87) | (510.70) | |
Information obtained from neighboring farmers | −81.06** | −231.64*** | −236.34 |
(40.67) | (57.80) | (157.86) | |
Information obtained from private companies | −50.06 | 106.37* | 348.84** |
(42.14) | (59.90) | (154.86) | |
Information and communication technology | 165.68* | 352.25** | 567.87** |
(95.50) | (142.45) | (244.39) | |
Haryana state (base category: Bihar) | 1648.72*** | 1527.69*** | |
(54.81) | (77.07) | ||
Constant | 2571.00*** | 3220.68*** | 3544.40*** |
(74.71) | (109.20) | (373.07) | |
R
2
| 0.55 | 0.41 | 0.23 |
No. of Observation | 2058 | 2016 | 351 |
Total N | Inorganic N | Organic N | |
---|---|---|---|
Family size | 0.13 | 0.25 | −0.12 |
(0.36) | (0.34) | (0.11) | |
Livestock owned (TLU) | 1.28*** | 0.81* | 0.46*** |
(0.48) | (0.46) | (0.16) | |
Cultivated land (ha) | 0.10 | 0.19 | −0.09** |
(0.29) | (0.29) | (0.05) | |
Credit access | −3.46* | −3.54* | 0.08 |
(2.04) | (2.00) | (0.74) | |
Tractor owned | 3.63 | 2.68 | 0.95 |
(4.35) | (4.42) | (0.74) | |
Thresher owned | 1.05 | 2.43 | −1.37 |
(8.43) | (8.20) | (1.93) | |
Participated in training on climate change | 11.92 | 11.65 | 0.27 |
(8.30) | (8.33) | (1.17) | |
Participated in training on soil and water | 1.00 | 4.14 | −3.14*** |
(6.06) | (5.88) | (1.06) | |
Participated in training on seed management | −4.03 | −5.38 | 1.35* |
(3.38) | (3.33) | (0.78) | |
Participated in training on crop rotation | −2.96 | −7.01** | 4.04*** |
(2.84) | (2.72) | (1.14) | |
Information obtained from extension service | −8.16* | −6.37 | −1.79** |
(4.89) | (4.91) | (0.72) | |
Information obtained from neighbor | 4.90* | 7.01*** | −2.11** |
(2.63) | (2.59) | (0.86) | |
Information obtained from private company | −3.21 | −4.96** | 1.75 |
(2.26) | (2.17) | (1.14) | |
Information and communication technology | 1.10 | 3.93 | −2.82*** |
(4.36) | (4.48) | (0.86) | |
Literate HH head | 0.91 | 2.15 | −1.24 |
(2.07) | (1.99) | (0.87) | |
Literate spouse of HH head | 1.15 | 2.01 | −0.86 |
(2.13) | (2.10) | (0.57) | |
Rice (base category: wheat) | −16.06*** | −9.60*** | −6.45*** |
(1.16) | (0.90) | (0.77) | |
Maize (base category: wheat) | −4.96** | −0.80 | −4.17*** |
(2.33) | (2.15) | (1.06) | |
Karnal (base category: Vaishali) | 80.10*** | 76.61*** | 3.49*** |
(2.59) | (2.51) | (0.96) | |
Constant | 100.32*** | 89.59*** | 10.72*** |
(3.26) | (2.96) | (1.74) | |
R
2
| 0.62 | 0.63 | 0.08 |
No. of observation | 4544 | 4544 | 4544 |
Rice | Wheat | Maize | |
---|---|---|---|
Literate HH head | −23.26** | −26.04* | −7.92 |
(11.83) | (14.63) | (28.87) | |
Literate spouse of HH head | 5.02 | −22.68* | 35.61 |
(13.42) | (11.66) | (40.43) | |
Family size | −0.12 | −1.03 | 4.38 |
(2.14) | (2.11) | (3.44) | |
Livestock owned (TLU) | −0.07 | 8.67*** | 13.50 |
(3.18) | (2.84) | (15.43) | |
Cultivated land (ha) | −0.99 | −1.16 | −48.62** |
(1.72) | (1.04) | (24.03) | |
Credit access | −1.09 | 9.38 | 20.99 |
(11.59) | (12.72) | (32.49) | |
Tractor owned | 6.49 | 7.18 | 221.87*** |
(21.31) | (18.41) | (50.47) | |
Thresher owned | −62.60 | −107.76*** | −248.98*** |
(41.36) | (32.38) | (62.91) | |
Participated in trainings | |||
Climate change | −79.86 | −34.32 | −60.63 |
(50.26) | (32.57) | (81.97) | |
Soil and water management | −26.30 | −11.29 | 5.60 |
(34.55) | (31.38) | (44.68) | |
Seed management | −67.50*** | −8.23 | . |
(20.95) | (18.25) | . | |
Crop rotation | 12.06 | 13.53 | 17.21 |
(17.91) | (19.15) | (25.24) | |
Agricultural information received | |||
Extension service | 19.07 | −21.69 | −21.70 |
(22.27) | (19.29) | (59.46) | |
Neighbors and relatives | 48.64*** | 15.25 | −13.02 |
(16.02) | (16.46) | (40.90) | |
Seed company | −5.59 | −5.96 | −51.85** |
(14.95) | (18.95) | (24.28) | |
ICT | 87.41** | 22.91 | 22.30 |
(36.15) | (27.29) | (32.48) | |
Haryana state (base category: Bihar) | −126.13*** | 21.88 | |
(16.46) | (16.94) | ||
Constant | 710.02*** | 372.48*** | 307.76*** |
(19.83) | (24.17) | (44.05) | |
R
2
| 0.21 | 0.04 | 0.07 |
No. of observation | 2112 | 2066 | 366 |
Zero tillage | N split | Manure | |
---|---|---|---|
State dummy (Karnal = 1; Vaishali = 0) | 0.91*** | 2.12*** | 0.08 |
(0.13) | (0.10) | (0.07) | |
Caste dummy (general caste = 1; otherwise = 0) | 0.36*** | 0.47*** | −0.03 |
(0.11) | (0.05) | (0.05) | |
HH head sex dummy (male = 1; female = 0) | −0.71** | −0.30*** | 0.13*** |
(0.35) | (0.09) | (0.04) | |
Literate HH head | 0.62*** | −0.02 | 0.05 |
(0.13) | (0.05) | (0.05) | |
Literate spouse of HH head | 0.07 | 0.16*** | −0.03 |
(0.10) | (0.06) | (0.06) | |
Main occupation of HH head (agriculture = 1; otherwise = 0) | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.00 |
(0.16) | (0.09) | (0.09) | |
Cultivated land (in ha) | 0.05*** | −0.04** | 0.02*** |
(0.01) | (0.02) | (0.01) | |
Training on climate change | 1.49*** | 0.43*** | 0.10 |
(0.18) | (0.16) | (0.13) | |
Training on soil and water management | 0.80** | 1.00** | 0.07 |
(0.34) | (0.46) | (0.26) | |
Training on seed management | −0.15 | 0.55*** | −0.06 |
(0.38) | (0.18) | (0.24) | |
Train on crop rotation | −0.65*** | 0.01 | 0.36*** |
(0.25) | (0.06) | (0.06) | |
Information obtained from neighboring farmers | −0.01 | 0.11** | −0.08 |
(0.13) | (0.05) | (0.06) | |
Information obtained from extension service | −0.38 | 0.10 | −0.16 |
(0.24) | (0.16) | (0.15) | |
Information obtained from private companies | −0.13 | −0.03 | 0.01 |
(0.19) | (0.05) | (0.06) | |
ICT | 0.17*** | −0.18 | −0.04 |
(.06) | (0.11) | (0.13) | |
Credit access | 0.19** | 0.35*** | −0.09** |
(0.09) | (0.05) | (0.04) | |
Constant | −2.66*** | 0.45*** | −1.07*** |
(0.33) | (0.15) | (0.15) | |
Pseudo R
2
| 0.58 | 0.35 | 0.22 |
No. of observation | 4544 | 4544 | 4544 |