Introduction
Background
Materials and methods
Initial qualitative study
Creation of variables for the subsequent quantitative strand
-
O1: The snow season is beginning later and ending sooner.
-
O2: Wintertime temperatures are increasing.
-
O3: Long stable cold periods are becoming less common.
-
O4: Rapid fluctuations in temperature are becoming more common.
Quantitative investigation methods
-
O1: The snow season is beginning later and ending sooner.
Symbol | Name | Longitude (°E) | Latitude (°N) | Elevation (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|
ARJ | Arjeplog | 17.84 | 66.05 | 431 |
DVD | Dividalen | 19.71 | 68.78 | 228 |
FRO | Frösön | 14.49 | 63.20 | 376 |
GAD | Gaddede | 14.16 | 64.5 | 328 |
GUN | Gunnarn | 17.71 | 65.01 | 280 |
JUN | Junsele | 16.95 | 63.68 | 215 |
KVK | Kvikkjokk | 18.02 | 66.89 | 314 |
LUL | Lulea | 22.12 | 65.54 | 17 |
PAJ | Pajala | 23.39 | 67.21 | 168 |
STO | Storlien | 12.13 | 63.30 | 642 |
-
O2: Wintertime temperatures are increasing.
-
O3: Long stable cold periods are becoming less common.
-
O4: Rapid fluctuations in temperature are becoming more common.
Results
Qualitative study results
Quantitative study results
-
O1: The snow season is beginning later and ending sooner.
Snow season start date | Snow season end date | Snow season duuration | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Trend (days/year) | Variance explained (%) | p value | Trend (days/year) | Variance explained (%) | p value | Trend (days/year) | Variance explained (%) | p value | |
ARJ | 0.46 | 1.7 | 0.578 | 0.59 | 18.2 | 0.060 | 0.13 | 0.1 | 0.893 |
DVD | 0.18 | 0.1 | 0.882 | − 0.73 | 7.9 | 0.244 | − 0.91 | 2.4 | 0.528 |
FRO |
1.37
|
29.4
|
0.005
|
− 0.63
|
16.2
|
0.046
|
− 2.01
|
29.8
|
0.005
|
GAD |
0.99
|
14.5
|
0.050
| − 0.21 | 4.2 | 0.303 |
− 1.20
|
16.7
|
0.034
|
GUN |
1.48
|
15.3
|
0.044
| − 0.70 | 18.3 | 0.026 |
− 2.18
|
20.1
|
0.019
|
JUN |
1.04
|
19.6
|
0.027
| − 0.33 | 5.5 | 0.260 |
− 1.38
|
19.9
|
0.025
|
KVK |
1.08
|
16.8
|
0.030
| − 0.27 | 8.6 | 0.130 |
− 1.35
|
19.2
|
0.020
|
LUL |
1.25
|
18.4
|
0.026
| − 0.14 | 5.1 | 0.258 |
− 1.39
|
19.6
|
0.021
|
PAJ | 0.07 | 0.1 | 0.882 | − 0.28 | 9.1 | 0.111 | − 0.35 | 1.3 | 0.559 |
STO | 0.09 | 0.5 | 0.729 | − 0.06 | 0.3 | 0.789 | − 0.15 | 0.7 | 0.673 |
-
O2: Wintertime temperatures are increasing.
-
O3: Long stable cold periods are becoming less common.
-
O4: Rapid fluctuations in temperature are becoming more common.
Days per year in extended cold periods | ||
---|---|---|
Trend log (days/year) | p value | |
ARJ |
− 0.031
|
0.009
|
DVD | − 0.012 | 0.424 |
FRO |
− 0.037
|
0.014
|
GAD |
− 0.033
|
0.009
|
GUN |
− 0.033
|
0.006
|
JUN |
− 0.037
|
0.004
|
KVK |
− 0.029
|
0.039
|
LUL |
− 0.035
|
0.010
|
PAJ |
− 0.024
|
0.019
|
STO |
− 0.038
|
0.002
|
Number of stations with increasing ranges | Number of stations with decreasing ranges | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Median | 75th Percentile | 90th Percentile | 99th Percentile | Median | 75th Percentile | 90th Percentile | 99th Percentile | |
Jan | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
6
|
2
| 0 | 0 |
Feb | 0 | 0 |
1
| 0 |
1
| 0 | 0 | 0 |
Mar | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Apr | 0 | 0 |
1
|
1
| 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
May | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Jun | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Jul |
1
| 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Aug |
2
|
1
|
2
|
3
| 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Sep |
1
|
4
|
2
|
2
| 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Oct | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Nov | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
2
|
4
|
1
|
2
|
Dec | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
8
|
6
|
3
|
2
|
Observations | Illustrative quotes | Quantitative test | Result |
---|---|---|---|
O1. The snow season is beginning later and ending sooner. Snow seasons are shorter | “And already in March the spring starts and in April with bare spots and everything. It wasn’t like that when I grew up, back then there were no bare spots until way into may” | Start date, end date, and duration of snow season | Claim supported in terms of the sign of the trend, statistical significance weak. In 28 of 30 test performances, the sign of the trend was consistent with perceptions, 14 of 30 trends were significant |
O2. Wintertime temperatures are increasing | “... The winters feel much warmer” | Changes in temperature distributions | Claim strongly supported including statistically significant trends in winter temperature percentiles |
O3. Long, stable, cold periods are becoming less common | “According to the interviewees, the long stable cold periods often do not occur at all ...” | Number of days each year in cold events (mean temperature < 25th percentile) lasting 10 days or more | Claim strongly supported. Claim strongly supported. 9 of 10 stations show statistically significant declines, trend is negative at all 10 |
O4. Rapid fluctuations in temperature are becoming more common | “It went from like − 20 to + 20 °C in just a few hours, but then it went back down again. This kind of uneven temperatures is something that you thing has started to occur more recently ...” | Day-to day changes and temperature fluctuations. 5-day temperature range. Numbers of days with temperatures fluctuating around freezing | Claim not supported. No evidence of increasing variability in the case of day-to-day changes of 5-day temperature range. Slight decrease in variability observed at some locations Generally increasing trend in days with temperatures near freezing, but few stations with significant trend |
Meta-inferences from the connected qualitative and quantitative results
-
O1: The snow season is beginning later and ending sooner.
-
O2: Wintertime temperatures are increasing.
-
O3: Long stable cold periods are becoming less common.
-
O4: Rapid fluctuations in temperature are becoming more common.