Innovation, Regional Integration, and Development in Africa

A networked system of innovation that combines knowledge, learning, research, innovation and capability building combined with social entrepreneurship can provide an alternative framework to the study of development and underdevelopment in general and African integrated development in particular. In addition to helping to re-frame key concepts about systems of innovation, we also seek to re-conceptualise innovation for development towards an approach that adds value from a social innovation and social entrepreneurship perspective. A new focusing device can be formulated as the “a Networked Innovation and Social Entrepreneurship Development System”(NISED) in order to incorporate knowledge, learning and competence building (KLIC) in the process of undertaking an integrated African development. A paradigm shift is needed to change entrepreneurship mainly validated by market success to social entrepreneurship mainly validated by social, economic, knowledge and environmental gains and success.

The search for a viable path to socio-economic development has underpinned the various efforts geared towards regional integration in Africa. Indeed, since the early 1960s through to the dawn of the twenty first century, political and bureaucratic elites in Africa such as Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, Nnamdi Azikwe, Obafemi Awolowo, Adebayo Adedeji of Nigeria, Thabo Mbeki of South Africa, among others have identified and championed the imperative of regional approach to restructuring the political economy of Africa (see Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2013; Adedeji 2012; Nkrumah 1963). The logic of their arguments stem from the weak capacity of the postcolonial state in Africa and their location in the global political economy, that is disproportionately designed against them. In order to realise the ambition of a united and integrated Africa, various programmes and strategies have been designed over the past four decades, both at the regional and continental levels. Starting from the formation of the Economic Community of West African States in 1975, through the East Africa Community of 1977 to the Southern African Development Community in 1992, many regional economic organisations have been formed on the continent to facilitate closer interactions and foster higher volumes of trade and investment among African countries. At the continental level, the Lagos Plan of Action and the Final Act of Lagos of 1980 had at its core, socio-economic development through self-reliance, industrialisation and regional integration (Mkandawire 2016; Adedeji 2012).

Africa emerged from the ordeals of colonialism with deeply traumatized population, widespread poverty and backwardness, weak economic and institutional infrastructure, dual economic structure within national economies, arbitrarily drawn and fragmented political boundaries, and vulnerability to persistent tension and instability. The 1960s were considered commonly as the decade of political independence of the continent even though the struggle against colonialism and apartheid somewhat continued in different corners of the continent for much longer period. The initial conditions of liberation and the legacy of colonialism throughout Africa left little room for optimism and magnified the daunting challenges that the new African nation states confronted and had to address within a fairly short period of time.

The concept national system of innovation (NSI) is popular in innovation parlance. In general, the definition of NSI locates the interactions that occur between the various elements promoting the production and use of knowledge in the confines of the nation-state. This is besides the fact that systems of national innovation, NSI policy, and policy for NSI are by default formal. They focus on the firm, formal organizations and the formal environment of the domestic economy. This chapter breaks from convention and attempts to innovate around innovation policy, systems of innovation and regionalism.

This study basically examines the implication of dual identity cleavage for Nigerian immigrants in Cote d’Ivoire. Ostensibly, various studies have attempted to explain the phenomena of trans-border relation and identity construction as separate concerns, none is observed to have established a formidable relationship between them in recent past. As such, the specific impact of simultaneous attachment to two nations by a migrants’ group is explored in this research. The study’s specificities are situated within the confines of Charles Tilly’s ‘Urban Sociological Postulate’ in which communities of participants are treated as social networks, while the research design combines four principal qualitative methods, that is, non-participant observation, focus group discussion (FGD), in-depth interviewing (IDI) and case study. Information from archival sources complemented the primary data. Data are subjected to content and ethnographic analyses. Two communities in West Africa (that is, Ejigbo, Nigeria and Abidjan, Cote d’Ivoire) serve as the study locations. Although vagaries of colonial rule had tended to discourage interactions across the borders, especially along the Anglophone-Francophone dichotomy, (uncensored) pre-colonial interactive pattern had outwitted such tendencies. Often time, cross-border interactions are considered as one taking place within the same geo-political space by the people. Routinely, two identities are kept alive by the immigrants (that is, an Ivorian-propelled image; for sake of acceptance within the host community and a Nigerian-propelled image; for sake of interaction with ‘home’ and for convenient re-integration). In Ejigbo, Nigeria, most of Ivorian goods are freely retailed using the Ivorian CFA; so also in Abidjan, Cote d’Ivoire, many Nigerian goods are sold using the Nigerian Naira. This study surmised that the implication of related cross-border processes is the production of a people engaged in a kind of transnational subsistence dualism (that is, transnational simultaneity) in which border, distance, language, government and associated variables are no longer barriers to interpersonal and intergroup relations.

In academia, the maxim publish or perish is a reminder on the importance of publications. It motivates researchers towards publishing their work to contribute to the body of knowledge. It is through publications that the scientific community is able to disseminate research outputs. The publication of research results contributes significantly, not only to the progress of science, but also to the interactive and sequential nature of scientific work through the circulation of knowledge. The pressure that is generated by the need to publish can provide the needed stimulus to produce cutting-edge research. Due to the central role of publications in the academia, research institutions across the world link career progression and tenureship to the number of books and articles published as a way of evaluating and rewarding competence. Over the past decade, Africa has registered an increasing number of publications, but the impact on society remains minimal. There is a risk that too much emphasis on publishing can decrease the value of scholarship by driving researchers to spend more time trying to publish whatever they can, rather than developing significant research agendas that can drive social and economic development. Thus, the urge to publish can discourage scientists from conducting innovative research that generates scientific breakthroughs with potential for commercialisation. It is against this background that this chapter argues for a shift from ‘publish or perish’ to ‘impact or perish’ in order to promote inclusive innovation and integrated development of Africa

There is an old adage that says ‘kopano ke matla’, from Sesotho language, which means unity is strength. This idiom best captures the significance of uniting for a particular desired end in whatever facet of life. Regional integration for this paper is one such facet that will be explored through the lenses of the Tripartite Free Trade Area (TFTA). Regional integration is defined, for the purposes of this paper, as a concept which signify political, economic, and cultural high level cooperation between independent states and their people, for mutually beneficial ends. TFTA is a regional bloc or organisation that was formed in 2015 comprising three smaller Regional Economic Communities (RECs) – Southern African Development Community (SADC), East African Community (EAC), and Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) merged into one. Amongst other purposes for the formation of TFTA is for it to pave way and provide a blueprint for the Continental Free Trade Area, which was earmarked for 2017. It also seeks to enlarge its markets, and increase its bargaining power when negotiating business deals with other regions and super powers.

The West African sub-region has experienced decades of dire socio-political and economic decline and marginalization within the global economic order. Early hopes of rapid development in post-colonial Africa were quickly dashed by a series of problems ranging from poor economic policies, to impoverishment, civil wars, inept political leadership and political instability (Akinola 2010). Bundu observes that:

Economic problems appear to have accumulated over time as policymakers battle with chronic food shortages, high population growth rates, deforestation and desertification, excessive dependence on commodity exports, deteriorating terms of trade, huge balance-of-payments deficits, government deficit financing, and increasing indebtedness (both domestic and external). Nowhere in West Africa have development strategies been successful in reversing the structural imbalances of our economies. (Bundu 1997, p. 29)

One of the challenges facing the African continent in the twenty first century is how to strengthen the capacity of domestic economies for effective and meaningful participation in the increasingly competitive global economy. The challenge is compounded by systematic relegation of African countries to the backwaters of global trade and investment and uninspiring efforts of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in multilateral trade negotiations. In grappling with this challenge, promotion of regional trade and economic integration has been identified as one key element. Highlighting the essence of regional integration in Africa, Ake (1981) noted that African formations need to cooperate to be strong enough to deal with the powerful multinational companies operating in Africa; overcome the constraints placed on industrialization and development by the small size of the internal markets; mobilize more capital for large-scale development; and exert better terms from their economic relations with international organizations, development agencies and other regional organizations.

One of the fundamental objectives of states in the contemporary state-system is the guarantee of economic growth and development, hence, the continuous setting of development agendas to meet recurring challenges. The agendas are usually planned to cater for national needs on immediate, short and long-term basis. The subsisting character of the international system requires that a sharper focus be directed towards the creation of science, technology and innovation agendas as the platform upon which to launch the development efforts of states. However, the capacity to drive science, technology and innovation initiatives is missing in most African states. Since the 1960s, solutions to national development challenges have been hinged on inter-state collaborations through regional integration but unfortunately, most of the emergent organizations face challenges that prevent them from performing at optimal level. Some of the challenges include; lack of political will on the part of member-states, inadequate funding, etc.

To deliver safe, effective, high quality and affordable care in the twenty-first century, strategic adoption of an interoperable health information system infrastructure is needed to transform healthcare from paper-based system to an electronic, interconnected regional healthcare system. Many studies have shown the importance or benefits of a disease surveillance health information system. Access to up-to date disease surveillance information can minimize deaths as a result of any disease outbreak. Timely access to diagnostic information can bring about several benefits regarding workflow, patient care, and disease management. These benefits can also result in theoretical net cost savings, (Maass et al. 2008). A host of academic articles and agency reports have argued that ICTs can make a substantial contribution to improving health and healthcare in developing countries (see Chetley and Trude 2006). This chapter looks into the role of mHealth in Disease surveillance and how it could be implemented at a regional level for strengthening regional health system in any region around the world and Africa in particular.

This article relies on several readings related to higher education and National Innovation Systems (NIS). The main objective is to analyze the problems of higher education in Angola, and the challenges of R&D in order to have sustainable development in that country, by taking into account the changes in the patterns of economic development. The discussion comes from a comparison between the ranking of universities in the world and in Africa. Moreover, I found that it is of paramount importance to make sure that the nature of this work dictates an interdisciplinary approach because a rich body of literature was used to explain Higher Education, R&D and National Innovation System, including approaches found in economic, social sciences and humanities.

The tacit nature of technological knowledge often renders face-to-face interactions a necessity for technology to diffuse because knowledge circulates best locally (Kesidou and Szirmai 2008). It is through those interactions that tacit knowledge can be translated into explicit, usable new knowledge. This explains why geographic proximity is important for technological learning by facilitating direct interactions and knowledge diffusion. Thanks to its impressive diamond deposits and its geographical proximity with the South African economy, Botswana is thus well poised to benefit from mastering and applying technologies that already exist in its southern neighbour. Botswana’s geographic and economic proximity with South Africa is thus one of its most important winning cards for a successful technological catch-up and long term-growth.

In comparison to 20 years ago, Africa has many opportunities for economic transformation and development in general. Macroeconomic policies in many African countries are becoming favorable aiming for economic growth and development. For more than 5 years now, economic growth for African countries has been impressive (AfDB 2017). Increased Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and trade between Africa and Asia have been on increasing record (OECD 2008). However, development of the manufacturing sector has remained almost stagnant compared to the state led economic approaches that were adopted by African countries soon after independence from the 1960s to late 1980s. For instance, Africa’s total world export share from 2000 to 2007 was at the average of three percent (3%) (ECA 2009). For East African Countries, the manufacturing share to Gross Domestic Products has remained below 10% for over 20 years (UNIDO 2008).

The literature has established that trade among Africa’s economies is generally low despite the interwoven and overlapping regional organizations among them. Our argument is that the major problem lies in the focus of the intra-trade in Africa. Regional trade should be based on a premise of common agreement and solution. Many African countries in recent years are plagued with the problem of food shortage as a result of draught and climate change. We believe many intra-trade should be focused on investments in agriculture that will have multiplier effects and help augment economic growth. More specifically, this chapter focuses on how innovation in the agricultural sector in Africa can stimulate entrepreneurship and improve the governance of innovation.

This paper analyses youth unemployment and informal entrepreneurship dynamics in Zimbabwe and draws some evidence from a country-wide survey of informal metal manufacturing industry conducted in 2012. The objective of the paper is to highlight how these dynamics have shaped current trends in youth employment and entrepreneurship. It finds that informal entrepreneurship continues to flourish to the extent that informal has become normal. Having grown from less than 10% of employment and Gross Domestic Product, the informal economy currently employs close to 90% of the country’s labour force and contributes over 60% of GDP implying that it has become the virtual economy. However, government policy has remained ambivalent towards informal entrepreneurship despite its pivotal role in employment creation. Evidence from the informal metal industry survey indicates that the young entrepreneurs are mainly graduates from secondary school, vocational training centres and technical colleges who have acquired the reuisite qualifications and technical expertise but fail to land jobs in the formal job market and end up creating employment for themselves through informal entrepreneurship. The paper has argued and emphasised the need for creation of a conducive policy environment to facilitate formalisation through a comprehensive and integrated policy framework which addresses the negative perceptions towards informality at the same time maintaining the significant role it plays such as job creation and income generation.

Food crop production in Nigeria is mostly at subsistent level from small holding farms yet; the World Bank (2007) reported that agriculture accounts for over 70% of the active labour force, and more than 23% of the Gross Domestic Product in Nigeria (GDP). Agriculture is the mainstay of the majority of Nigerian rural poor, producing major food crops comprising cereals such as sorghum, maize, rice; tubers which include yams, cassava; legume such as groundnut and cowpea. Maize is one of the worlds’ three primary cereal crops. It occupies an important position in world economy and trade as a food, feed and industrial grain crop. The importance of maize in Nigeria cannot be over emphasized, with the country producing 43% of maize grown on West Africa (Olarinde et al. 2007). However, increase in maize production in Nigeria has been achieved greatly by expansion in area harvested rather than increase in yield (Olaniyan 2015). Transformation lies in using innovation to improve the products and services delivered by actors in the production process (Ayinde et al. 2013a). Technological innovation refers to a process driven by an intention of imposed changes, managed, accompanied, collaboratively or individually elaborated in view of introducing, suppressing, restructuring or displacing an element or system within an established context (Adamczewski 1996).

Urbanisation everywhere has created a host of problems that extend beyond the scope of the public and private sector organisations (UN-HABITAT 2009; Mugumbate et al. 2013). Among the problems identified are waste management, inadequate water supply, inefficient public transport, urban poverty, informality, urban inequality and social exclusion, especially of the urban poor (Kadi et al. 2012; FIG 2010; Smith and London 1990; Todaro 1981). These are social problems that have persisted for long and require social innovative approaches to address (Mulgan 2007; European Commission 2014). The high growth opportunity areas for social innovation include urban development, water management, transport and logistics and waste management. Social innovations have also been found to be more compelling in instances where there is need for sustainable development (Frost and Sullivan 2014). Considering the current situation in Africa where informality is on the rise mainly as a result of urbanisation that is not associated with industrialisation social innovations are increasingly being applied in different sectors hence this study will contribute by putting a debate for social innovation from an African perspective.

Economic success of a nation is highly related to Scientific and Technological (S&T) capability building. Therefore, both industrially developed and developing nations follow explicit strategies to increase their technological competency. However, Technological Capability (TC) building cannot be completed in isolation. It is a long-term process and requires a country to pass through different phases of learning, infrastructure development, human resources management and institutions building. This chapter analyses Indian and South African S&T capability through the major input (R&D expenditure, manpower) and output indicators (High Technology Export, Technology balance of payment, scholarly publications, patents and so on). It is observed that India is ahead of South Africa in some respect but in some areas South Africa’s performance is quite good. The study concludes with the policy recommendations from the developing countries’ particularly the South African perspective.

The book has shown that socio-economic development in Africa is inextricably tied to innovation that is anchored on an integrated policy at the national, regional and continental levels. As various contributors have demonstrated in this volume, there is an acute limited capacity for innovation at the national level in many African countries. The limitations at the state level is particularly informed by the structural disarticulation of the economies of the various African countries. As scholars have shown, dependence on export of raw materials and unprocessed minerals cannot foster sustainable development in Africa (Page 2016). According to UNECA (2016) there are new momentum in boosting innovation and regional integration in Africa both at national, regional and continental levels. From Kenya and Ethiopia in East Africa to South Africa in Southern Africa as well as Nigeria and Ghana in West Africa innovation hubs are being established where new products are manufactured.