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1998 | Buch

Introduction to Biopolymers from Renewable Resources Kapitel lesen Erstes Kapitel lesen

Biopolymers from Renewable Resources

herausgegeben von: Dr. David L. Kaplan

Verlag: Springer Berlin Heidelberg

Buchreihe : Macromolecular Systems — Materials Approach

Enthalten in: Professional Book Archive

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Über dieses Buch

Biopolymers from Renewable Resources is a compilation of information on the diverse and useful polymers derived from agricultural, animal, and microbial sources. The volume provides insight into the diversity of polymers obtained directly from, or derived from, renewable resources. The beneficial aspects of utilizing polymers from renewable resources, when considering synthesis, pro­ cessing, disposal, biodegradability, and overall material life-cycle issues, suggests that this will continue to be an important and growing area of interest. The individual chapters provide information on synthesis, processing and properties for a variety of polyamides, polysaccharides, polyesters and polyphenols. The reader will have a single volume that provides a resource from which to gain initial insights into this diverse field and from which key references and contacts can be drawn. Aspects of biology, biotechnology, polymer synthesis, polymer processing and engineering, mechanical properties and biophysics are addressed to varying degrees for the specific biopolymers. The volume can be used as a reference book or as a teaching text. At the more practical level, the range of important materials derived from renewable resources is both extensive and impressive. Gels, additives, fibers, coatings and films are generated from a variety of the biopolymers reviewed in this volume. These polymers are used in commodity materials in our everyday lives, as well as in specialty products.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Frontmatter
Chapter 1. Introduction to Biopolymers from Renewable Resources
Abstract
A wide range of naturally occurring polymers derived from renewable resources are available for material applications. Some of these, such as cellulose and starch, are actively used in products today, while many others remain underutilized. With the rapid advancement in understanding of fundamental biosynthetic pathways and options to modulate or tailor these pathways through genetic manipulations, new opportunities for the use of polymers from renewable resources are being considered. These biopolymers are derived from a diverse set of polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, polyphenols, and specialty polymers produced by bacteria, fungi, plants and animals. Some of these polymers have recently been reviewed (for examples, see [5, 12, 26, 45, 74, 131].
D. L. Kaplan
Chapter 2. Starch: Properties and Materials Applications
Abstract
Starchy foods have always been an important part of the human diet. It should be no surprise, then, that other applications for this abundant natural material were developed early in the history of man. For example, there is evidence that, as early as 4000 B.C., starch was used as a coating for papyrus [1].
R. L. Shogren
Chapter 3. Polysaccharides — Cellulose
Abstract
Cellulose constitutes the most abundant, renewable polymer resource. It has been estimated [1] that the yearly photosynthesis of biomass is 170 billion tons, 40 % of which consists of polysaccharides; mainly cellulose and starch. However, only about 3 % of the available polysaccharides are utilized yearly.
R. D. Gilbert, J. F. Kadla
Chapter 4. Polysaccharides: Chitin and Chitosan: Chemistry and Technology of Their Use As Structural Materials
Abstract
Chitin is considered the second most plentiful organic resource on the earth next to cellulose, and is present in marine invertebrates, insects, fungi and yeasts. Chitin is essentially a homopolymer of 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-β-D-glucopyranose, although some of the glucopyranose residues are in the deacetylated form as 2-amino-2-deoxy-β-D-glucopyranose. When chitin is further deacetylated to about 50% it becomes soluble in dilute acids and is referred to as chitosan. Thus chitosan is the N-deacetylated derivative of chitin, although the N-deacetylation is almost never complete. There is not a sharp boundary in the nomenclature distinguishing chitin from chitosan. Chitin does occur in nature in the fully acetylated form and has been referred to as chitan [1]. Chitosan rarely occurs in nature, but is found in the dimorphic fungus, Mucor rouxii [2]. Its occurrence in Mucor rouxii is via the enzymatic deacetylation of chitin.
S. M. Hudson, C. Smith
Chapter 5. Alginates
Abstract
Alginates are linear polyuronic acid hydrocolloids. They are produced by some brown seaweeds and certain species of bacteria. The polymer from seaweed is used extensively as thickening, stabilizing, and emulsifying agents in both the chemical and food industries. Alginic acid (algin, alginate) is a heteropolysaccharide composed of linear sequences of D-mannuronic acid and its C5 epimer, L-guluronic acid. The monomeric units are linked 1,4. Alginic acid polymers form interchain associations in the presence of di and trivalent cations (particularly calcium), producing hydrated gels. This ability to gel in the presence of cations has led to a wide range of uses for this industrial polymer.
D. F. Day
Chapter 6. Soy Protein As Biopolymer
Abstract
For many biomedical, agricultural, and ecological purposes, it is desirable to have a biodegradable plastic that will undergo degradation in the physiological environment or by microbial action in the soil. Great effort has been devoted to enhance the biodegradability of plastics, and attempts have been centered mainly around the following areas: new biodegradable polymers, modification of natural polymers, modification of synthetic polymers, and biodegradable polymer composites. In search of biodegradable polymers based on renewable resources, attention has been focused on biopolymers as starting materials. Plant protein is one of the major biopolymers in crops. It is a renewable and biodegradable biopolymer. There are relatively few applications for plant protein as materials. Fibers and plastics have been produced from plant proteins such as casein, zein, glycinin, and arachin. Among these plant proteins, soy protein has the advantage of being economically competitive.
Y. T.-P. Ly, L. A. Johnson, J. Jane
Chapter 7. Protein-Based Materials
Abstract
Proteins are one of three essential macromolecules in biological systems. Along with polysaccharides and nucleic acids, they permit organic life to exist and reproduce. Easily isolated from natural systems, they have been studied for decades for their ability to spontaneously form primary, secondary, and higher order structures that can exhibit biological function and supramolecular protein organization in tissues and organs. A tremendous amount of effort has been directed toward understanding their interactions in solution, as an aqueous environment is essential for most biological functions.
M. M. Butler, K. P. McGrath
Chapter 8. Bacterial γ-Poly(glutamic Acid)
Abstract
γ-Poly(glutamic acid), γ-PGA, is a bacterially synthesized water soluble nylon. It can be classified as a pseudo-poly(amino acid) which contains only glutamate repeat units. γ-PGA differs from proteins, however, in that the glutamate repeat units are polymerized by a ribosome-independent process. Furthermore, the glutamate repeat units are linked between the α-amino and γ-carboxylic acid functional groups (see below) [1].
R. A. Gross
Chapter 9. Polyhydroxyalkanoates
Abstract
A number of publications have been written describing various aspects of poly(hydroxyalkanoates), PHAs [1–7]. The simplest and most common member of the PHA family is poly(β-hydroxybutyrate) (I). The sections which follow describe the historical development of knowledge of this family of polyesters, and the scientific and technical aspects of significance in its commercial development. Currently, PHAs are only commercially available from fermentation technology, with current production approaching a million pounds per year. The environmental thrust for recycling and clean technologies for waste disposal suggest that PHA production will increase significantly in the coming decades.
P. J. Hocking, R. H. Marchessault
Chapter 10. Surfactants and Fatty Acids: Plant Oils
Abstract
Chinese Melon (Momordica Charantia L.), commonly known as bitter gourd, is a tropical crop grown throughout Asian countries. Chinese gardeners identify the plant as “la-kwa” or “ku-kwa” and hence the name Chinese Melon. It is a monoecious climbing vine and its green pulpy arils surrounding the seeds, as well as its ripe fruit, are used as food and medicinals [1]. The fruits are ovoid with a muriculate-tuberculate surface and are variable in size.
S. F. Thames, M. D. Blanton, S. Mendon, R. Subramanian, H. Yu
Chapter 11. Surface Active Polymers from the Genus Acinetobacter
Abstract
The genus Acinetobacter is defined as Gram-negative, nonmotile, nonpigmented, oxidase-negative saprophytes [1]. A genus-specific DNA transformation assay provides further demonstration for inclusion in this genus [2]. Strains belonging to the genus Acinetobacter produce a variety of extracellular polymers that bind to and change the surface properties of water-insoluble organic and inorganic compounds. A survey of several independently-isolated Acinetobacter strains indicated that most produced extracellular surface-active polymers [3]. Several of these microbially produced surface active polymers will be discussed here. All of these are complex, high molecular weight anionic heteropolysaccharides that may require additional components (lipids or proteins) for their maximum surface activity.
E. Rosenberg, E. Z. Ron
Chapter 12. Lignin
Abstract
Second only to cellulose, lignin is amongst the most abundant biopolymers on earth. It is estimated that the planet currently contains 3 × 1011 metric tons of lignin with an annual biosynthetic rate of approximately 2 × 1010 tons [1, 2]. Lignin constitutes approximately 30 % of the dry weight of softwoods and about 20 % of the weight of hardwoods [3]. Lignification is associated with the development of vascular system in plants, providing resistance to biodegradation and environmental stresses such as changes in the balance of water and humidity [4]. Lignin is absent from primitive plants such as algae, and fungi which lack a vascular system and mechanical reinforcement. The presence of lignin within the cellulosic fibre wall, mixed with hemicelluloses, creates a naturally occurring composite material which imparts strength and rigidity to trees and plants. An additional role for lignin has recently been revealed [5–7] involving complexes of lignin phenolic acids in forage legumes and grasses. The presence of lignin phenolic acids is thought to inhibit the digestion of potentially digestible carbohydrates by ruminants.
D. S. Argyropoulos, S. B. Menachem
Chapter 13. Natural Rubber from Plants
Abstract
Joseph Priestly, the English pastor who befriended Benjamin Franklin and lost his house (and nearly his life) to an English mob because of his sympathy to the American colonies, is best known for his greatest contribution to science, the discovery of oxygen. Less well known is the fact that he coined the term for “rubber” [1], discovered when he rubbed out pencil marks on paper using the coagulated gum of the South American caoutchouc tree.
R. A. Backhaus
Chapter 14. Failure Properties Of Guayule Rubber
Abstract
The rise in the incidence of allergic reactions to latex products from the rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) [1–8], along with the recent discovery that rubber from the guayule shrub (Perthenium argentatum grey) is hypoallergenic [1, 6, 9], has caused renewed interest in commercial development of the latter. Heretofore, interest in guayule rubber (GR) was predicated on the desire to have a domestic source for natural rubber (NR). Of course, the widespread use of cis-1,4-polyisoprene is due to the rubber’s low cost and outstanding failure properties. These properties are unique to polyisoprenes having essentially 100 % cis-1,4 chemical structure. There have been a number of studies concerned with the relative performance of the various grades of Hevea natural rubber [10, 11].
P. G. Santangelo, C. M. Roland
Chapter 15. High Molecular Weight Polylactic Acid Polymers
Abstract
Polylactic acid (PLA) belongs to the family of aliphatic polyesters commonly made from α-hydroxy acids which include polyglycolic acid, [1, 2] or polymandelic acid [3] and are considered biodegradable and compostable. PLA is a thermoplastic, high strength, high modulus polymer which can be made from annually renewable resources to yield articles for use in either the industrial packaging field [4] or the biocompatible/bioabsorbable medical device market [5]. It is easily processed on standard plastics equipment to yield molded parts, film, or fibers. It is one of the few polymers in which the stereochemical structure can easily be modified by polymerizing a controlled mixture of the L or D isomers to yield high molecular weight amorphous or crystalline polymers which can be used for food contact and are generally recognized as safe (GRAS)[6]. PLA is degraded by simple hydrolysis of the ester bond and does not require the presence of enzymes to catalyze this hydrolysis. The rate of degradation is dependent on the size and shape of the article, the isomer ratio, and temperature of hydrolysis. A more detailed summary of degradation and lactic acid manufacturing is given in recent monographs [7, 8].
M. H. Hartmann
Backmatter
Metadaten
Titel
Biopolymers from Renewable Resources
herausgegeben von
Dr. David L. Kaplan
Copyright-Jahr
1998
Verlag
Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Electronic ISBN
978-3-662-03680-8
Print ISBN
978-3-642-08341-9
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-03680-8