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2018 | Buch

Remote Sensing Geology

verfasst von: Prof. Dr. Ravi P. Gupta

Verlag: Springer Berlin Heidelberg

Enthalten in: Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" , Springer Professional "Technik" , Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

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Über dieses Buch

Over the past decade, advances in sensor technology, processing algorithms, and computational capacity have taken remote sensing to a level where observations can be transformed into quantitative measurements, and the technology can be used in near real-time for mapping, monitoring and decision-making.

For the third edition, this widely acclaimed book has been fully revised, enlarged and updated. It covers remote sensing in a wide range of optical, thermal, and microwave wavelengths and their host of geologic applications featuring sample applications from around the globe. In addition, it presents state-of-the-art content on emerging themes such as atmospheric interactions, spectroscopy, spectral indices, prospectivity modelling, and multi-sensor geodata integration. The

subject matter is presented at a basic level, offering students an excellent introductory text on remote sensing. Further, the main part of the book will also be of great value to active researchers.

Excerpt from the review of Remote Sensing Geology (2nd ed., 2003):

International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 5 (2004) 239–240

“....Graduate students, research workers and professional earth scientists will use this book to their advantage and with pleasure; it is well-written, to the point and with an emphasis on understanding the principles underlying this wide spectre of technology in its application to the earth sciences. Remote sensing is a fascinating subject; so is geology. The author has fully succeeded in providing a fascinating book that combines them in a handy volume.”

Jan J. Nossin

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Frontmatter

Chapter 1. Introduction

Abstract

Remote sensing in the simplest words means obtaining information about an object without touching the object itself. As the object and the sensor are placed far apart from each other, electromagnetic radiation forms the connecting link between the object and the sensor. The technology of remote sensing has primarily evolved the techniques of aerial photography. Remote sensing data can be acquired from various types of sensors mounted on different platforms such as balloons, aircrafts and satellites. Field data forms a vital input for confirming remote sensing image interpretation.

Ravi P. Gupta

Chapter 2. Physical Principles

Abstract

The properties of EM radiation can be considered into two main groups: wave nature and particle nature. The particle nature (or quantum nature) of light is used to explain the phenomena of selective absorption and emission. Important blackbody radiation principles include the Wien’s Displacement Law, Stefan-Boltzmann Law, Rayleigh-Jean’s Law, Kirchoff’s Law, and finally the most important the Planck’s Law. EM radiation has a wide spectrum ranging from gamma rays to radiowaves. Atmosphere and ground materials exhibit different types of interaction with EM radiation of different wavelengths.

Ravi P. Gupta

Chapter 3. Spectra of Minerals and Rocks

Abstract

Interactions of the EM radiation with matter at atomic-molecular scale result in selective absorption, emission and reflection. These phenomena govern spectral response of objects that form the basis of remote sensing. Various atomic-molecular energy states (viz. electronic and vibrational) are responsible for different types of interactions with EM radiation. Visible and near-infrared radiation causes mainly electronic transitions and short-wave infrared radiation causes mainly vibrational transitions. The thermal infrared region is marked by the presence of Reststrahlen bands.

Ravi P. Gupta

Chapter 4. Photography

Abstract

Photography has become outdated and obsolete. However, it is important from the point of view of using the archival data of 1920’s–1980’s. Photography had a great advantage in its analogy to the eye system and high resolution provided by films. The principles of stereo-photogrammetry developed around aerial photography are still valid. The photographic systems used different types of cameras, films and filters. Photography was typically flown from aerial platforms. Important space-borne photographic missions have included the Metric Camera, Large Format Camera and KVR-1000.

Ravi P. Gupta

Chapter 5. Multispectral Imaging Techniques

Abstract

In this chapter we discuss the principle of non-photographic multispectral imaging systems. A digital sensor comprises of a detector part and an optical part. Various types of photo conductive detectors are used for quantifying the radiation intensity. Resolution of a sensor is considered in terms of spatial resolution, spectral resolution, radiometric resolution and temporal resolution. Important types of scanners or imaging devices include: the opto-mechanical line scanner, CCD-line scanner and digital cameras. The focal plane arrays and time-delay integration architecture of CCD linear arrays has added a new dimension to the remote sensing imaging capability.

Ravi P. Gupta

Chapter 6. Important Spaceborne Missions and Multispectral Sensors

Abstract

Satellite orbital motion is governed by the Kepler’s Laws. Suitable designed sensors are placed on the satellite platform for repeated observations of the ground. The most important orbit for satellite remote sensing is the Sun-synchronous orbit (SSO). Most of the satellites such as Landsat, Spot, IRS/Resourcesat, Terra, JERS, ALOS, CBERS etc. have been placed in the SSO. Important sensors have included: MSS, TM, ETM+, ASTER, HRV, LISS etc. These sensors operate in a wide range of wavelength from visible, near-infrared to thermal infrared. The most important sensor for geologic remote sensing has been the ASTER sensor aboard Terra platform. Data from satellite platforms is relayed down to receiving stations for pre-processing, formatting and distribution to users.

Ravi P. Gupta

Chapter 7. Geometric Aspects of Photographs and Images

Abstract

A universal task of remote sensing is to deliver maps displaying spatial distribution of objects with good geometric accuracy. Photographs and images may possess systematic and non-systematic distortions. Some of these distortions could be related to panoramic distortion, aspect ratio, platform instability, Earth’s curvature, skewing due to the Earth’s rotation and relief displacement. Stereoscopy provides three dimensional perception of ground objects. Photogrammetry is used for accurate measurements on remote sensing images and photographs.

Ravi P. Gupta

Chapter 8. Digital Elevation Model

Abstract

In principle, a digital elevation model (DEM) describes elevations of various points in a given area in digital format. In this chapter, only raster GIS based DEMs are discussed. Data for generating a DEM can be acquired from different sources such as: ground surveys, digitization of topographic contour maps, conventional aerial photographic photogrammetry, digital photogrammetry utilizing remote sensing image data, UAV-borne digital camera, satellite SAR data etc. The fundamental principle involved is the concept of elevation being related to parallax as developed originally for stereo aerial photography. The DEMs have found numerous geologic applications.

Ravi P. Gupta

Chapter 9. Image Quality and Principles of Interpretation

Abstract

Image quality is a major factor governing the amount of information that can be extracted from a remote sensing product. Brightness contrast ratio is the ratio of brightness of any two objects occurring side-by-side. Factors affecting image quality include: ground properties, solar illumination, state of the atmosphere, meteorological conditions, and sensor system factors. Images and photographs are studied individually or collectively by making mosaic, stereo viewing, and generating colour composites. Elements of photointerpretation and geotechnical elements are used as basic parameters for image interpretation, in which the convergence of evidence remains a vital principle.

Ravi P. Gupta

Chapter 10. Atmospheric Corrections

Abstract

As the EM radiation passes through the atmosphere, it undergoes modification in intensity due to atmospheric interaction, viz. selective scattering, absorption and emission. The main objective of atmospheric corrections is to retrieve the realistic surface reflectance or emittance values of a target from remotely sensed image data. In the solar reflection region, atmospheric scattering is the dominant cause of path radiance. In the thermal infrared region, atmospheric window is used to minimize the effect of atmospheric emission. Different types of procedures are used for atmospheric correction that include empirical-statistical procedures and radiative transfer modelling.

Ravi P. Gupta

Chapter 11. Interpretation of Solar Reflection Data

Abstract

This part of the spectrum is the most intensively studied region for remote sensing of the Earth. Solar reflected energy reaching the sensor depends upon a number of factors, viz. Sun attitude, atmospheric-meteorological conditions, topography, slope and aspect, sensor look angle and target reflectance. Different objects have different response on different spectral band images. This forms the basis of remote sensing. Interpretation can be made from panchromatic black-and-white products as well as from colour composites. In modern times, computation of reflectance and topographic correction are considered as important in data interpretation.

Ravi P. Gupta

Chapter 12. Interpretation of Thermal-IR Data

Abstract

The EM wavelength region of 3−35 µm is popularly called the thermal-infrared region in terrestrial remote sensing. Out of the 3−35 µm wavelength region, the greatest interest has been in the 8−14 μm range. The energy radiated by ground objects depends upon surface temperature and emissivity. Out of the various thermal properties, thermal inertia is the most important property that governs the diurnal surface temperature variation. Therefore, thermal data are processed to generate thermal inertia images. These have applications in a wide range of geologic purposes (structure, lithology, groundwater etc.). Thermal data can be used to estimate ground temperature and map typical “hot” features such as volcanic eruptions, coal mine fires etc. Multispectral thermal – IR sensing aims at delineating different rock types based on emissivity differences.

Ravi P. Gupta

Chapter 13. Digital Image Processing of Multispectral Data

Abstract

Digital image processing deals with the technique of implementing changes in remote sensing data pattern for specific purposes. It can be carried out for a number of purposes such as: radiometric image correction, geometric image correction, image registration, image enhancement, image filtering, image transformation, colour enhancement, image fusion, 2.5 Dimensional visualization, image segmentation and classification.

Ravi P. Gupta

Chapter 14. Imaging Spectroscopy

Abstract

Imaging spectroscopy can be defined as acquisition of images in hundreds of contiguous, registered, spectral bands such that for each pixel a radiance spectrum can be derived. The basic concepts and general terminology such as continuum and depth of absorption have been adapted from spectroscopy. Various high resolution spectral features of minerals studied in laboratory form the backbone of imaging spectrometry data interpretation. A number of aerial imaging spectrometer sensors have been flown by different countries.

Ravi P. Gupta

Chapter 15. Microwave Sensors

Abstract

The EM spectrum range 1 mm to 1.0 m is designated as microwave. In the context of terrestrial remote sensing, this spectral region is marked by an excellent atmospheric window. Radar sensors operate in this wavelength range. Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) are endowed with advanced processing algorithms and constitute the modern radar sensors having high resolution. Selected spaceborne SAR sensors include: Seasat, Shuttle Imaging Radar series, JERS, ALOS, ERS, Radarsat, SRTM, Envisat etc. The modern concept is to deploy a constellation of similar satellites in the same orbit for high-repetitive terrestrial observations.

Ravi P. Gupta

Chapter 16. Interpretation of SAR Imagery

Abstract

The technique of SAR imaging and the various aerial and space-borne SAR sensors have been discussed in the preceding chapter. The radar response opens up new avenues for discriminating and mapping Earth materials, as the radar signal provides a ‘new look’ at the ground. SAR images possess a different type of geometric distortion, and therefore due care and expertise are required. Factors affecting SAR signal include: power transmitted, antenna gain, radar wavelength, beam polarization, look angle, aspect angle, slant range, and ground surface characteristics, particularly surface roughness and complex dielectric constant. Polarimetry and SAR tomography are new emerging techniques.

Ravi P. Gupta

Chapter 17. SAR Interferometry

Abstract

SAR interferometry (also called InSAR) is used for deriving high accuracy elevation data and generating digital elevation models. It primarily uses phase data from repetitive or multiple SAR signal from which interferograms are generated. Baseline is a very important consideration in SAR interferometry application. A number of aerial InSAR sensors have been designed and flown all over the world. ERS-1/-2 space missions turned out to be a milestone in InSAR. Corner reflectors are used for collecting ground truth. Differential InSAR (DInSAR) has applications in measuring displacements associated with earthquakes, land subsidence, landslide movement, volcano monitoring, and mapping/detection of movement of surface features.

Ravi P. Gupta

Chapter 18. Integrating Remote Sensing Data with Other Geodata (GIS Approach)

Abstract

The purpose of integrated multidisciplinary investigations is to study a system or phenomenon using several approaches and as many attributes as possible or required, in order to obtain a more comprehensive and clearer picture. The growth in computing and data-processing capabilities, coupled with advances in geographic information system (GIS) technology and its integration with geostatistics, has played a very important role in developing integrated geo-exploration approach. Here only raster GIS is discussed. Besides remote sensing data, various types of geophysical data, geochemical data, topographic data and thematic data (vegetation, soil, groundwater etc.) can be integrated in and collectively analysed. Various GIS tools and classification approaches can be adopted.

Ravi P. Gupta

Chapter 19. Geological Applications

Abstract

This chapter provides a broad overview of geological applications of remote sensing data. First, it reviews the accuracy aspects and the general strategy required for data selection, resolution requirements, data processing etc. Then, the chapter provides numerous examples of applications in various branches of geology – geomorphology, structure, lithological mapping, mineralogical identification, alteration mapping, mineral and oil exploration, groundwater and engineering geological studies, coal mine fire mapping, volcano monitoring, earthquake disaster investigations, soil erosion and environmental applications.

Ravi P. Gupta

Backmatter

Titel: Remote Sensing Geology
verfasst von: Prof. Dr. Ravi P. Gupta
Verlag: Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Electronic ISBN: 978-3-662-55876-8
Print ISBN: 978-3-662-55874-4
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-55876-8