Tourism Marketing for Developing Countries

This book focuses on tourism marketing for countries in the developing world. According to the World Bank, the term “developing world” is used to describe low- and middle-income economies, in which the gross national income (GNI) per capita in 2014 was under $12,746 (World Bank, 2014b). However, the term “developing country” is not only a financial indicator; it points to a complex system of ties between historical, economic, political and social factors (Todaro, 1992). In many developing countries, this system results in a long list of challenges, including poverty, limited effectiveness of public services, safety and security issues, public health issues, inadequate access to technology, poor public education services and low level of environmental sustainability (Blowfield and Frynas, 2005; Mansfeld and Pizam, 2006; Avgerou, 2008; Olken and Pande, 2012). Even in the context of tourism, although developing countries aim to generate revenues and promote development through tourism, it is considerably different from tourism planning, developing and marketing in developed countries (Reid, 2003).

The image of a country can affect the decisions made by a wide range of audiences, such as foreign investors, tourists, consumers, students, entrepreneurs, trading partners, officials of other countries, potential donors and multilateral agencies (Anholt, 2009; Martínez and Alvarez, 2010; White and Radic, 2014). In the field of tourism, we know that the public image and the media image of a country are crucial for many decisions and behaviors made by tourists, including whether and where to visit or travel in that country, what will be the aim and content of the visit, and what will be the length of the stay. This is why analyzing, understanding and measuring the projected image is a necessary step for every marketer and is crucial for every marketing initiative (Khan, 2013).

The purpose of this chapter is to develop the discussion about the problematic image of the developing countries in the international media and to try to understand why the coverage patterns of these countries are characterized by low visibility, stereotypes and generalization, as we saw in the previous chapter. After a brief discussion regarding relations between global communications and the global system, this chapter will examine the seven factors that influence construction of the image of developing countries in the international media: the geographical distance of the developing world from the international media headquarters; problematic news definitions of the developing world; the small number of reporters allocated to cover the developing world; the developing world covered by Western journalists; residents of the developing world not being perceived as the target audience of the international media; the low social-political-economic status of the developing world; and developing countries’ weak public relations efforts.

Chapters 1 and 2 dealt with the image of developing countries, factors that construct their media and public images, and with the consequences of the problematic image. The challenging question is how can these countries correct and restore their image in the international media and among world audiences. Since the beginning of the 1990s, we have witnessed the development of a new academic and professional field called “place/destination branding” which relies on the knowledge we had, even before the 1990s, on “place marketing”. Our analysis of the images of developing countries that we present in this book shows that several such countries have used the knowledge accumulated around the world in order to restore their media and public images. Nevertheless, most of these countries would do even better if they used that knowledge and took it into account in their future marketing and branding plans. This chapter will walk the reader from the broad concept of “place marketing” to the specific concepts of “destination branding” and “nation branding” and their practical aspects. Among other topics, this journey will include the issues of analysis, planning, development and implementation of the branding process and tourism marketing strategies, which can serve destinations in their efforts to achieve a more attractive image.

While some destinations enjoy a positive image and a constant influx of tourists, this is not always the case. Other places, particularly in developing countries, may suffer from repeated crises and are associated with negative stereotypes that keep tourists away. In the previous chapters we learned that tourist destinations in developing countries tend to suffer from negative stereotypes, generalizations and perceptions; that there are various factors that shape these negative images in the mass media; and that destination marketing practices can alter these images. The current chapter will explore four key issues: (a) the use of image restoration discourse to improve a destination’s image; (b) the role of crisis communication in responding to sudden crises; (c) the multi-step model for altering the place’s image, and its implication for destination marketing; and (d) the marketing tool of media strategies and the relevant strategies for marketing destinations that suffer from negative stereotypes and other undesirable images.

The Middle East occupies a place of honor in the world because of its long history, and the fact that various superpowers have long shown a range of political, geopolitical and cultural interests in the region over the years (Al Mahadin and Burns, 2006). The Middle East is home to three major religions, has always been relevant in world affairs and offers unique landscapes and sites that are different from those existing in the global tourism supply system (Freire, 2012). Developing tourism in the Middle East can make a great contribution to the region’s economy, help build a bridge to peace mediation, and create cooperation between countries that have been engaged in prolonged political conflict (Al-Hamarneh and Steiner, 2004; Zamani-Farahani and Henderson, 2010).

Africa is the world’s second largest and second most populous continent. It is rich in history, cultural resources, natural resources and fauna and flora. Sub-Saharan Africa is changing and developing rapidly and some African cities are now characterized by multicultural communities, a vibrant business environment and modern skylines. According to a 2014 report by the World Bank, there is continuous economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa, increasing investments in natural resources and infrastructure, a rise in foreign capital flow into the continent and steady growth in inbound tourism. Sub-Saharan Africa is now home to some of the world’s fastest growing economies and the continent is offering exciting opportunities for trade, business, investment and tourism development (World Bank, 2014a).

Asia is the world’s largest continent. It accounts for almost 30 percent of the world’s land area and is home to over 4 billion people — approximately 60 percent of the world’s population. Asian civilizations are rich in history, culture and heritage, and these cradles of mankind are still growing and developing every day. Asia is home to some of the world’s most vibrant economies and to success stories such as those of China, India, Japan, Singapore and South Korea. And yet, in contrast to Asia’s economic growth in recent decades, over 900 million people still live in poverty, and issues of child mortality, inadequate food supply and illiteracy are more relevant than ever before (Hudman and Jackson, 2003; Lew et al., 2008; Boniface et al., 2012).

Using the conceptual frame of the “multi-step model for altering place image” and integrating theory and practice, we analyzed media strategies used by destinations in the developing world to deal with unexpected crises, stereotypes and prolonged negative images. Such images had developed over many years, and were reinforced in the public mind by superficial and sensational media coverage. In the case of a destination suffering from a prolonged image problem, it seems almost unrealistic to expect tourists to visit such a destination and put aside negative or threatening perceptions and stereotypes, just because of an advertising campaign, a public relations event or other promotional tool, often used by marketers of “regular destinations” that do not suffer from negative images (Anholt, 2005).