nach oben

Erschienen in:

2019 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

14. Recreational Scuba Diving and Snorkelling

verfasst von : David Huddart

Erschienen in: Outdoor Recreation

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

Einloggen

Aktivieren Sie unsere intelligente Suche, um passende Fachinhalte oder Patente zu finden.

search-config

KI-gestützte Suche

Aus

Abstract

In this chapter, recreation diving is defined, and the numbers involved and impacts discussed. However, it is difficult to quantify the impact of any one of many stressors on coral reefs independently of the others. There is often a lack of scientific understanding of the interrelationships which limits the success of efforts to effectively create policy and regulations preventing reef decline. The impacts include direct trampling by reef walking, from the effects of pontoons (installation, anchor damage, fish feeding), direct impacts from diver behaviour including sediments raised, the effects on the corals (including effects of sunscreens), impacts on fish communities and kelp forests. The ways of managing activities to reduce the impacts are discussed, including reducing use levels, modifying diver behaviour, establishing underwater diving and sculpture trails, artificial reefs, fee charging changes, and diver involvement in conservation projects.

Sie haben noch keine Lizenz? Dann Informieren Sie sich jetzt über unsere Produkte:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 102.000 Bücher
über 537 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Automobil + Motoren
Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
Finance + Banking
Management + Führung
Marketing + Vertrieb
Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe
Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Jetzt informieren

Springer Professional "Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 67.000 Bücher
über 390 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Automobil + Motoren
Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Jetzt informieren

Vorheriges Kapitel Water Sports and Water-Based Recreation

Nächstes Kapitel Recreational Fishing

Abidin, S. Z. Z., & Mohamed, B. (2014). A review of SCUBA Diving impacts and implication for Coral Reefs Conservation and Tourism Management. In SHS Web of Conferences 12, 01093, https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/20141201093.

Allison, W. R. (1996). Snorkeler damage to reef corals in the Maldive Islands. Coral Reefs, 15, 215–218.CrossRef

Alvarez-Filip, L., Dulvy, N. K., Gill, J. A., Côté, I. M., & Watkinson, A. R. (2009). Flattening of Caribbean coral reefs: Region-wide decline in architectural complexity. Proceedings of the Royal Society, Biological Science, 276, 3019–3025.CrossRef

Anthony, K. R. N., Kline, D. N., Diaz-Pulido, G., Dove, S., & Hoegh-Guldberg, O. (2016). Ocean acidification causes bleaching and productivity loss in coral reef builders. PNAS, 105, 17442–17446.CrossRef

Antonius, A., & Riegl, B. (1997). A possible link between coral diseases and a corallivorous snail (Drupella cornus) outbreak in the Red Sea. Atoll Research Bulletin, 447, 1–9.CrossRef

Arnold, P. W., & Birtles, R. A. (1999). Towards Sustainable Management of the Developing Dwarf Minke Whale Tourism Industry in Northern Queensland. CRC Reef Research Centre Technical Report No. 27. CRC Reef Research Centre, Townsville, 30pp.

Bak, R. P., Brouns, J., & Heys, F. (1977). Regeneration and aspects of spatial competition in the scleractinian corals Agaricia agaracites and Montastrea annularis. In Proceedings of the 3rd International Coral Reef Symposium 2 (pp. 143–148).

Bak, R. P. M., & Criens, S. R. (1981). Survival after fragmentation of colonies of Madracis mirabilis, Acropora palmata, and A. cerviconis. Atoll Research Bulletin, 441, 1–9.

Barker, N. H. L. (2003). Ecological and Socio-economic Importance of Dive and Snorkel Tourism in St. Lucia, West Indies. PhD thesis, University of York, 220pp.

Barker, N. H. L., & Roberts, C. M. (2004). Scuba diver behaviour and the management of diving impacts on coral reefs. Biological Conservation, 120, 481–489.CrossRef

Belhassen, Y., Rousseau, M., Tynyakov, J., & Shashar, N. (2017). Evaluating the attractiveness and effectiveness of artificial coral reefs as a recreational ecosystem service. Journal of Environmental Management, 203, 448–456.CrossRef

Belknap, J. (2008). A Study of the Relationship between Conservation Education and Scuba Diver Behaviour in the Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary. PhD thesis, Texas A&M University, 120pp.

Brander, L. M., Beukering, P. V., & Cesar, H. S. J. (2007). The recreational value of coral reefs; a meta-analysis. Ecological Economics, 63, 208–218.CrossRef

Camp, E., & Fraser, D. (2012). Influence of conservation education dive briefings as a management tool on the timing and nature of recreational SCUBA diving impacts on coral reefs. Ocean Coast Management, 61, 30–37.CrossRef

Chabanet, P., Adjeroud, M., Andrefouet, S., Bozec, Y. M., Ferraris, J., Garcia-Charton, J. A., et al. (2005). Human-induced physical disturbances and their indicators on coral reef habitats: A multi-scale approach. Aquatic Living and Resources, 18, 215–230.CrossRef

Chamberlain, J. A. (1978). Mechanical properties of coral skeleton: Compressive strength and its adaptive significance. Paleobiology, 4, 419–435.CrossRef

Chamberlain, J. A., & Graus, R. R. (1975). Water flow and hydromechanical adaptations of branched reef corals. Bulletin of Marine Science, 25, 112–125.

Chung, S. S., Au, A., & Qiu, J. (2013). Understanding the underwater behaviour of scuba divers in Hong Kong. Environmental Management, 51, 824–837.CrossRef

Co, I. M., Green, S. J., Akins, J. L., & Malijokovic, A. (2012). Invasive lionfish drive Atlantic coral reef fish declines. PLoS One, 7, 1–4.

Coma, R., Pola, E., Ribes, M., & Zababala, M. (2004). Long-term assessment of temperate octocoral mortality patterns, protected vs. unprotected areas. Ecological Applications, 14, 1466–1478.CrossRef

Connell, J. H. (1997). Disturbance and recovery of coral assemblages. Coral Reefs, 16, 101–113.CrossRef

Cordell, H.K. (2012). Outdoor Recreation: Trends and Futures a Technical Document Supporting the Forest Service 2010 RPA Assessment. General Technical Report SRS-150. Asheville, NC: USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station.

Danovaro, R., Bongiornia, L., Corinaldesi, C., Gionvandli, D., Dantiani, E., Astolfi, P., et al. (2008). Sunscreens cause coral bleaching by promoting viral infections. Environmental Health Perspectives, 116, 441–447.CrossRef

Darwin, C. (1874). The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs. London: Smith, Elder and Company.CrossRef

Davis, G. E. (1977). Anchor damage to a coral reef on the coast of Florida. Biological Conservation, 11, 29–34.CrossRef

Davis, P. Z. R., & Kearns, C. M. (2005). Koror State Government Marine Tour Guide Certification Program Manual (2nd ed.), Koror State Department of Conservation and Law Enforcement and the Coral Reef Research Foundation, Koror, 172pp.

Dimmock, K., & Musa, G. (2015). Scuba diving tourism system: A framework for collaborative management and sustainability. Marine Policy, 54, 52–58.CrossRef

Dineson, Z., & Oliver, J. (1997). Tourism impacts. In D. R. Wachenfeld, J. Oliver, & K. Davis (Eds.), State of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area, Workshop 1995 (pp. 414–427). GBRMPA Workshop Series No. 23. Townsville, Australia.

Dinsdale, E. A., & Harriot, V. J. (2004). Assessing anchor damage on coral reefs: A case study in selection of environmental indicators. Environmental Management, 33, 126–139.CrossRef

Ditton, R. B., Osburn, H. R., Baker, T. L., & Thailing, C. E. (2002). Demographics, attitudes, and reef management practices of sport divers in offshore Texas waters. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 59, 186–191.CrossRef

Diving Equipment and Marketing Association. (2014). Diver Study. San Diego, CA.

Dixon, J. A., Fallon-Scura, L., & van’t Hof, T. (1993). Meeting ecological and economic goals: Marine parks in the Caribbean. Ambio, 22, 117–125.

Downs, C. A., Kramarsky-Winter, E., Segal, R., Fauth, J., Knutson, S., Bronstein, O., et al. (2016). Toxicopathological effects of the sunscreen UV filter, Oxybenzone (Benzophenone-3) on coral Planulae and cultured primary cells and its environmental contamination in Hawaii and the US Virgin Islands. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 70, 265–288.CrossRef

Dustan, P., & Halas, J. C. (1987). Changes in reef-coral community of Carysfort Reef. Key Largo, Florida, 1974–1982. Coral Reefs, 6, 91–106.CrossRef

Edney, J. (2006). Impacts of recreational scuba diving on ship-wrecks in Australia and the Pacific. A review. Micronesian Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences, 5, 201–233.

Edney, J., & Howard, J. (2013). Review: Wreck diving. In K. Dimmock & G. Musa (Eds.), SCUBA Diving Tourism (pp. 52–56). London and New York: Routledge.

Edwards, M. (1997). Concerns and potential threats to the ecologically sustainable use of the Cairns section of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park by the marine tourism industry. In Reef Tourism 2005, Cairns, 41pp.

Emang, D., Lundhede, T. H., & Thorsen, B. J. (2016). Funding conservation through use and potentials for price discrimination among scuba divers at Sipadan, Malaysia. Journal of Environmental Management, 182, 436–445.CrossRef

Erftemeyer, P. L. A., Riegl, B., Hoeksema, B. W., & Todd, P. A. (2012). Environmental impacts of dredging and other sediment disturbances on corals: A review. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 64, 1737–1765.CrossRef

Fatt, O. T., & Musa, G. (2013). Responsible underwater behaviour. In K. Dimmock & G. Musa (Eds.), SCUBA Diving Tourism (pp. 117–133). London and New York: Routledge.

Garrabou, J., Sala, E., Arcas, A., & Zabala, M. (1998). The impact of diving on rocky sublittoral communities: A case study of a bryozoan population. Conservation Biology, 12, 302–312.CrossRef

Garrod, B. (2008). Market segments and tourist typologies for diving tourism. In B. Garrod & S. Gössling (Eds.), New Frontiers in Marine Tourism: Diving Experiences, Sustainability, Management (pp. 31–39). Amsterdam: Elsevier.CrossRef

Garrod, B., & Gössling, S. (2008). Introduction. In B. Garrod & S. Gössling (Eds.), New Frontiers in Marine Tourism: Diving Experiences, Sustainability, Management (pp. 3–28). Amsterdam: Elsevier.CrossRef

Giglio, V. J., Ternes, M. L. F., Mendes, T. C., Cordeiro, C. A. M. M., & Ferreira, C. E. L. (2017). Anchoring damages to benthic organisms in a subtropical dive hotspot. Journal of Coastal Conservation, 21, 311–316.CrossRef

Goffredo, S., Piccinetti, C., & Zaccanti, F. (2004). Volunteers in marine conservation monitoring: A study of the distribution of sea horses carried out in collaboration with recreational scuba divers. Conservation Biology, 18, 1492–1503.CrossRef

Grafeld, S., Oleson, K., Barnes, M., Peng, M., Chan, C., & Weijerman, M. (2016). Divers willingness to pay for improved coral reef conditions in Guam: An untapped source of funding for management and conservation? Ecological Economics, 128, 202–213.CrossRef

Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. (2000). Whale and Dolphin conservation in the GBRMPA. Retrieved from http://www.gnrmpa.gov/au/corp.site/info.services/publications/whale-dolphin/index.

Green, E., & Donnelly, R. (2003). Recreational scuba diving in Caribbean marine protected areas: Do the users pay? Ambio, 32, 140–144.CrossRef

Guzner, B., Novplansky, A., Shalit, O., & Chadwick, N. E. (2010). Indirect impacts of recreational scuba diving: Patterns of growth and predation in branching stony corals. Bulletin of Marine Science, 86, 727–742.

Hall, V. R. (2001). The response of Acropora hyacinthus and Monitpora tuberculosa to three different types of colony damage: Scraping injury, tissue mortality and breakage. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 264, 209–223.CrossRef

Harriot, V. J., David, D., & Banks, S. A. (1997). Recreational diving and its impact in marine protected areas in eastern Australia. Ambio, 26, 173–179.

Harris, L. E. (2009). Artificial reefs for ecosystem restoration and coastal Erosion protection with aquaculture and recreational amenities. Reef Journal, 1, 235–246.

Hartman, M. L. (2012). Assessment of Diver Impact during the Spiny Lobster Sport Season, Florida Keys, USA. MSc thesis, University of South Florida, 75pp (Graduate theses and dissertations). Retrieved from http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/4330.

Harvey, C. (2015). Green Fins: An approach to managing a sustainable diving industry. Retrieved from http://panorama.solutions/en/solutions/green-fins-an-approach-tomanaging-sustainable-divingindustry.

Harvey, C. (2017). Green Fins: A tool for reducing direct impacts of diving and tourism industries. Retrieved from http://Vimeo.com/225451965.

Hassler, H., & Ott, J. A. (2008). Diving down the reefs? Intensive diving tourism threatens the reefs of the northern Red Sea. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 56, 1788–1794.CrossRef

Hawkins, J. P., & Roberts, C. M. (1994). The growth of coastal tourism in the Red Sea: Present and future effects on coral reefs. Ambio, 23, 503–508.

Hawkins, J. P., Roberts, C. M., Van’t, T., de Meyer, K., Tratalos, J., & Adam, C. (1999). Effects of recreational scuba diving on Caribbean coral and fish communities. Conservation Biology, 13, 888–897.CrossRef

Hein, M. Y., Lamb, J. B., Scott, C., & Willis, B. L. (2015). Assessing baseline levels of coral health in a newly established marine protected area in a global scuba diving hotspot. Marine Environmental Research, 103, 56–65.CrossRef

Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Poloczanska, E. S., Skirving, W., & Dove, S. (2017). Reef ecosystems under climate change and ocean acidification. Frontiers in Marine Science, 29. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2017.0158.

Hoey, A. S., Howells, E., Johansen, J. L., Hobbs, J.-P. A., Messner, V., McGowan, D. M., et al. (2016). Recent advances in understanding the effects of climate change on coral reefs. Diversity, 8(2), 12. https://doi.org/10.3390/d8020012.CrossRef

Hughes, T. P., Kerry, J. T., Alvarez-Moriega, M., Alvarez-Romero, J. G., Anderson, K. D., Baird, A. H., et al. (2017). Global warming and recurrent mass bleaching of corals. Nature, 543, 373–377.CrossRef

Hunt, C. V., Harvey, J. J., Johnson, V., & Pongsuwan, N. (2013). The Green Fins approach for monitoring and promoting environmentally sustainable scuba diving operations in South East Asia. Ocean and Coastal Management, 78, 35–44.CrossRef

Inglis, G. J. (1997). Science and tourism infrastructure on the Great Barrier Reef: learning from experience or just “muddling through”? In Proceedings of Great Barrier Reef Science Use and Management (pp. 319–333).

Jameson, S. C., Ammar, M. S. A., Sandalla, E., Mostafa, H. M., & Riegl, B. (1999). A coral damage index and its application to diving sites in the Egyptian Red Sea. Coral Reefs, 18, 333–339.CrossRef

Johansen, K. M. (2013). SCUBA diving education and training. In K. Dimmock & G. Musa (Eds.), SCUBA Diving Tourism (Chap. 5). London and New York: Routledge.

Johansen, K. M., & Koster, R. L. (2012). Forming scuba diving environmental codes of conduct: What entry level divers are taught in their first certification course. Tourism in Marine Environments, 8, 61–77.

Kapitze, I. R. (1999). Sustainable infrastructure development on the Great Barrier Reef. In Coasts and Ports ’99, Challenges and Directions in the New Century. Proceedings of 14th Australasian Coastal and Ocean Engineering Conference and the 7th Australasian Port and Harbour Conference.

Kay, A., & Liddle, M. (1989). Impact of human trampling in different zones of a coral reef flat. Environmental Management, 13, 509–520.CrossRef

Kayal, M., Vercelloni, J., Lison de Loma, T., Bosserelle, P., Chancerelle, Y., Geoffrey, S., et al. (2012). Predator crown-of-thorns starfish (Ancathaster planci) outbreak. Mass mortality of corals and cascading effects on reef fish and benthic communities. PLoS One, 7(10), e 47363.CrossRef

Kirkbride-Smith, A. E., Wheeler, P. M., & Johnson, M. L. (2016). Artificial reefs and marine protected areas: A study in willingness to pay to access Folkestone marine reserve, Barbados, West Indies. Peer Journal, 4, e2175. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.2175.CrossRef

Krieger, J. R., & Chadwick, N. E. (2013). Recreational diving impacts and the use of pre-dive briefings as a management strategy on Florida coral reefs. Journal of Coastal Conservation, 17, 179–189.CrossRef

Lamb, J. B., True, J. D., Piromvaragorn, S., & Willis, B. L. (2014). Scuba diving damage and intensity of tourist activities increases coral disease prevalence. Biological Conservation, 178, 89–96.CrossRef

Liddle, M., & Kay, A. (1987). Resistance, survival and recovery of trampled corals on the Great Barrier Reef. Biological Conservation, 42, 1–18.CrossRef

Lorenz, B., Ilavia, V., Sergio, R., Stefano, S., & Giovanni, S. (2011). Involvement of recreational scuba divers in emblematic species monitoring: The case of Mediterranean red coral (Corallium rubrum). Journal for Nature Conservation, 19, 312–318.CrossRef

Luna, B., Pérez, C. V., & Sanchez-Lizaso, J. (2009). Benthic impacts of recreational divers in a Mediterranean marine protected area. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 66, 517–523.CrossRef

Lutz, S. J. (2006). A thousand cuts? An assessment of small-boat grounding damage to shallow corals of Florida keys. In W. F. Precht (Ed.), Coral Reef Restoration Handbook (pp. 25–38). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.CrossRef

Lyons, P. J., Arboleda, E., Benkwitt, C. E., Davis, B., Gleason, M., Howe, C., et al. (2015). The effect of recreational SCUBA divers on the structural complexity and benthic assemblage of a Caribbean coral reef. Biodiversity and Conservation, 24, 3491–3504.CrossRef

Magurran, A. E. (1996). Ecological Diversity and Its Measurement. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 192pp.

McClanahan, T. R. (1994). Coral-eating snail Drupella cornus population increases in Kenyan coral reef lagoons. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 115, 131–137.CrossRef

Medeiros, R. P., Grempel, R. G., Souza, A. T., Tlarri, M. I., & Sampaio, C. L. (2007). Effects of recreational activities on the fish assemblage structure in a northeastern Brazilian reef. Panamjas. Pan-American Journal of Aquatic Sciences, 2, 288–300.

Medio, D., Ormond, R., & Pearson, M. (1997). Effect of briefings on rates of damage to corals by scuba divers. Biological Conservation, 79, 91–95.CrossRef

Meyer, C. E., & Holland, K. (2008). Spatial dynamics and substrate impacts of recreational snorkelers and SCUBA divers in Hawaiian marine protected areas. Journal of Coastal Conservation, 12, 209–216.CrossRef

Meyer, L. A. (2002). Recreation Specialization and Environmental Behaviors: An Exploratory Analysis among Scuba Divers. MSc thesis, University of Florida, 122pp.

Milazzo, M., Cheniello, R., Badalamenti, F., Camarda, R., & Reggio, S. (2002). The impact of human recreation activities in marine protected areas: What lessons should be learnt in the Mediterranean Sea? Marine Ecology, 23, 280–290.CrossRef

Milon, J. W. (1989). Artificial marine habitat characteristics and participation behaviour by sport anglers and divers. Bulletin of Marine Science, 44, 853–862.

Neil, D. (1990). Potential for coral stress due to sediment resuspension and deposition by reef walkers. Biological Conservation, 52, 221–227.CrossRef

Nelson, V. M., & Mapstone, B. D. (1998). A Review of Environmental Impact Monitoring of Pontoon Installations in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. CRC Reef Research Centre Technical Report No. 13, CRC Reef Research Centre, Townsville, 85pp.

Nicholls, R. S. (2013). Effectiveness of Artificial Reef as Alternative Dive Sites to Reduce Diving Pressure on Natural Coral Reefs, a Case Study of Koh Tao, Thailand. BSc thesis, Department of Forestry and Conservation, University of Cumbria, 42pp.

Nyström, M., Folke, C., & Moberg, F. (2000). Coral reef disturbance and resilience in a human-dominated environment. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 15, 413–417.CrossRef

Pascoe, S., Doshi, A., Thébaud, O., Thomas, C. R., Schultenberg, H. Z., Heron, S. F., et al. (2014). Estimating the potential impact of entry fees for marine parks on dive tourism in South East Asia. Marine Policy, 47, 147–152.CrossRef

Pattengill-Semmens, C. V., & Semmens, B. X. (2003). Conservation and management application of the reef volunteer fish monitoring program. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 81, 43–50.CrossRef

Perhol-Finkel, S., Shashar, N., & Benayanu, Y. (2006). Can artificial reefs mimic natural reef communities? The roles of structural features and age. Marine Environmental Research, 61, 121–135.CrossRef

Plass-Johnson, J. G., Schwieder, H., Heiden, J., Weiand, L., Wild, C., Jompa, J., et al. (2015). A recent outbreak of crown-of thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) in the Spermonde archipelago, Indonesia. Regional Environmental Change, 15, 1157–1162.CrossRef

Plathong, S., Inglis, G. J., & Huber, M. E. (2000). Effects of self-guided snorkeling trails in a tropical marine park. Conservation Biology, 14, 1821–1830.

Poonian, C., Davis, P. Z. R., & McNaughton, C. K. (2010). Recreational divers on Palauan coral reefs and options for management. Pacific Science, 64, 557–565.CrossRef

Potkamp, G., Vermeij, M. J. A., & Hoeksema, B. W. (2017). Host-dependent variation in density of coralliverous snails (Coralliophila spp.) at Curaçao, southern Caribbean. Marine Biodiversity, 47, 91–99.CrossRef

Riegl, B., & Riegl, A. (1996). Studies on coral community structure and damage as a basis for zoning marine reserves. Biological Conservation, 77, 269–277.CrossRef

Riegl, B., & Velimirov, B. (1991). How many damaged corals in Red Sea reef systems? A quantitative survey. Hydrobiologia, 216/217, 249–256.CrossRef

Roberts, L., & Harriot, V. J. (1994). Recreational scuba diving and its potential for environmental impact in a marine reserve. In O. Bellwood, H. Choat, & N. Saxena (Eds.), Recent Advances in Marine Science and Technology, ’94 (pp. 695–704). Townsville, Australia.

Roche, R. C., Harvey, C. V., Harvey, J. J., Kavanagh, A. P., McDonald, M., Stein-Rostaing, V. R., et al. (2016). Recreational diving impacts on coral reefs and the adoption of environmentally responsible practices within the SCUBA diving industry. Environmental Management, 58, 107–116.CrossRef

Rogers, C. S. (1990). Responses of coral reef organisms to sedimentation. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 62, 185–202.CrossRef

Rogers, K. S., & Cox, E. F. (2003). The effects of human trampling on Hawaiian corals along a gradient of human use. Biological Conservation, 112, 383–389.CrossRef

Rouphael, B. A., & Inglis, G. J. (1995). The Effects of Qualified Recreational Scuba Divers on Coral Reefs. Technical Report No. 4, CRC Reef Research Centre, Townsville, Australia.

Rouphael, B. A., & Inglis, G. J. (1997). Impacts of recreational scuba diving at sites with different reef topographies. Biological Conservation, 82, 329–336.CrossRef

Rouphael, B. A., & Inglis, G. J. (2001). “Take only photographs and leave only footprints”? : An experimental study of the impacts of underwater photographers on coral reef dive sites. Biological Conservation, 199, 281–287.CrossRef

Rίos-Jara, E., Galván-Villa, C. M., Rodriguez-Zaragosa, F. A., Lopez-Uriate, E., & Muñon-Fernández, V. T. (2013). The tourism carrying capacity of underwater trails in Isabel Island National Park, Mexico. Environmental Management, 52, 335–347.CrossRef

Sarmento, V. C., & Santos, P. J. P. (2012). Trampling on coral reefs: Tourism effects on harpacticoid copepods. Coral Reefs, 31, 135–146.CrossRef

Schaeffer, T. M., & Foster, M. S. (1998). Diver Disturbance in Kelp Forests. Research Technical Report, Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary. Retrieved from http://montereybay.noaa/research/techreports/diver_report/html.

Schleyer, M. H., & Tomalin, B. J. (2000). Damage on south African coral reefs and an assessment of their sustainable diving capacity using a fisheries approach. Bulletin of Marine Science, 67, 1025–1042.

Scott, C. M., Mehrotra, R., Hein, M. Y., Moerland, M. S., & Hoeksema, B. W. (2017). Population dynamics of corallivores (Drupella and Acanthaster) on coral reefs of Koh Tao, a diving destination in the Gulf of Thailand. Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, 65, 68–79.

Serour, R. K. (2004). An Environmental Economic Assessment of the Impacts of Recreational Scuba Diving on Coral Reef Systems in Hurghada, the Red Sea, Egypt. MSc thesis, University of Maryland, 63pp.

Shani, A., Polak, O., & Shashar, N. (2011). Artificial reefs and mass marine ecotourism. Tourism Geographies: An International Journal of Tourism, Space and Environment, 14, 361–382.CrossRef

Shivlani, M. (2007). A Literature Review of Sources and Effects on Non-extractive Stressors to Coral Reef Ecosystems. South East Florida Coral Reef Initiative, Final Report, Project 19, Phase 1, 18pp.

Shivlani, M., & Suman, D. (2000). Dive operator use patterns in the designated no-take zones of the Florida Keys National Maritime Sanctuary (FKNMS). Environmental Management, 25, 647–659.CrossRef

Stolk, P., Markwell, K., & Jenkins, J. M. (2007). Artificial reefs and recreational scuba diving resources: A critical review of research. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 15, 331–350.CrossRef

Sweatman, H. P. A. (1996). Impact of Tourist Pontoons on Fish Assemblages on the Great Barrier Reef. Technical Report 5, CRC Reef Research, Centre, Townsville, Australia.

Talge, H. (1991). Impact of Recreational Divers on Scleractinian Corals of the Florida Keys. MSc thesis, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, USA, 92pp.

Tilmant, J. T. (1987). Impacts of recreational activities on coral reefs. In B. Salvat (Ed.), Human Impacts on Coral Reefs: Facts and Recommendations (pp. 551–556). French Polynesia: Antenne Museum EPHE.

Tilmant, J. T., & Schmahl, G. P. (1981). A comparative analysis of coral damage on recreationally used reefs within Biscayne National Park, Florida. In Proceedings of the Fourth International Coral Reef Symposium (pp. 187–192), University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines.

Townsend, C. (2000). The Effects of Environmental Education on the Behaviour of SCUBA Divers: A Case Study from the British Virgin Islands. MSc thesis, University of Greenwich, 116pp.

Toyoshima, J., & Nadaoka, K. (2015). Importance of environmental briefing and buoyancy control on reducing negative impacts of SCUBA diving on coral reefs. Ocean and Coastal Management, 116, 20–26.CrossRef

Tratalos, J. A., & Austin, T. J. (2001). Impacts of recreational SCUBA diving on coral communities of the Caribbean island of grand Cayman. Biological Conservation, 102, 67–75.CrossRef

Underwood, A. J., & Peterson, E. H. (1988). Towards an ecological framework for investigating pollution. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 46, 227–234.CrossRef

Uyarra, M. C., & Côté, I. M. (2007). The quest for cryptic creatures: Impacts of species-focused recreational diving on corals. Biological Conservation, 136, 77–84.CrossRef

van Treek, P., & Schumacher, H. (1998). Mass diving tourism—A new dimension calls for new management approaches. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 37, 499–504.CrossRef

Vandrezee, M. (1996). Managing tourism use in Australia’s GBRMPA. In Proceedings of World Congress on Coastal and Marine Tourism, Hawaii.

Wongthong, P., & Harvey, N. (2014). Integrated coastal management and sustainable tourism: A case study of the reef-based SCUBA dive industry from Thailand. Ocean and Coastal Management, 95, 138–146.CrossRef

Woodland, D. J., & Hooper, N. A. (1977). The effect of human trampling on coral reefs. Biological Conservation, 11, 1–4.CrossRef

Worachananant, S., Carter, R. W., Hockings, M., & Reopanichkul, P. (2008). Managing the impacts of SCUBA divers on Thailand’s coral reefs. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 16, 645–663.CrossRef

Zakai, D., & Chadwick-Furman, N. E. (2002). Impacts of intensive recreational diving on reef corals at Eilat, northern Red Sea. Biological Conservation, 105, 179–187.CrossRef

Titel: Recreational Scuba Diving and Snorkelling
verfasst von: David Huddart
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Buch: Outdoor Recreation
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-97757-7

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-319-97758-4

Copyright-Jahr: 2019
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97758-4_14