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2019 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

6. Socio-ecological Viability and Legal Regulation: Pluralism and Endogeneity – For an Anthropological Dimension of Environmental Law

verfasst von : Olivier Barrière, Mohamed Behnassi

Erschienen in: Coviability of Social and Ecological Systems: Reconnecting Mankind to the Biosphere in an Era of Global Change

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

National (State) and international environmental law is based on a scientific dimension that places man at the heart of a normative system founded on a naturalist rationale. However, the dichotomy enacted between societies and ecosystems is questioned by the idea that humankind is part of nature (Stockholm Declaration, 1972; World Charter for Nature 1982), and by the fact that nature is part of a cultural construction (Descola P, Par delà nature et culture. Gallimard, Paris, 2005) leading to the concept of an anthroposystem (Lévêque C, Muxart T, Abbadie L, Weil A, Van der Leeuw S, L’anthroposystème: entité structurelle et fonctionnelle des interactions sociétés-milieux. In: Lévêque C, Van der Leeuw (dir) Quelles natures voulons-nous? pour une approche socio-écologique du champ de l’environnement. Elsevier, Paris, pp 110–129, 2003). The ecological imperative (pressing ecological needs), defined by climate change and biodiversity degradation, raises questions about the desirability of an anthropocentric environmental law, subjected to a neoliberal economic paradigm (we take here the example of French law). Furthermore, this law the vocation of which is to provide a response to the urgent ecological situation, is based on a technical dimension, obliterating the anthropological dimension of human diversity. The ensuing challenge consists of integrating an anthropological dimension to environmental law which is based essentially only on an ecological dimension in an anthropocentric manner, by being open to legal pluralism through accepting a “legal endogeneity” (i.e. law developed by the social body).

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Vorheriges Kapitel The Relationship Between Man and His Environment: A Systemic Approach of the Viability of “System Earth”

Nächstes Kapitel Legal Challenge of the Socio-ecological Connection: The Paradigm of Coviability Defined by the Adequacy Between Social Usefulness and the Ecological Function

“The future at once holds great peril and great promise. To move forward we must recognize that in the midst of a magnificent diversity of cultures and life forms we are one human family and one Earth community with a common destiny. We must join together to bring forth a sustainable global society founded on respect for nature, universal human rights, economic justice, and a culture of peace. Towards this end, it is imperative that we, the peoples of Earth, declare our responsibility to one another, to the greater community of life, and to future generations”. “Recognizing that all beings are interdependent and every form of life has value regardless of its worth to human beings”. (Principle 1.1a).

Law N 071 of 21 December 2010: “To promote the harmony of Mother Earth in all fields of its relationships with human communities and ecosystems “(art.9).

Clam and Martin 1998; Chevallier 1983, 1998, 2001; Romano 1919; Ost 2000; Barrière 2007; Chazel et Commaille 1991.

Law, seen as an autopoietic subsystem by the positivist paradigm (state law) restricting the law to laws, locks itself within the context of a self-replicating legal system, making it quasi-autonomous. In this representation, the basis of the validity of a norm comes from its creation which is established in conformity with a higher norm, which defines a system of normative hierarchy: auto-reproduction leads to an auto-creation of the law: “we observe that these (legal) norms are themselves created by legal acts, and that in turn these acts receive their legal significance from other norms “(Kelsen 1960); “The law regulates its own creation” (ibid). Thus, the law as a system leads to an order (the legal order) which reproduces itself because of its internalized process of evolution (cf Teubner 1984, 1993).

“The inadequacy of the Kelsenian positivist theory to the mutations of positive public law prompts us to reconstitute the current theory of law to deal with such mutations. As for the supposedly scientific nature of pure theory, it has never been tested as much as it is today” (Sabete 1999).

Gutwirth et Ost 1999.

A terra incognitae (from Latin meaning “unknown land”) is a territory that has not yet been explored by Man, or by European explorers, travelers and merchants. This expression is linked to discovery and to large areas and is therefore frequently used in the fields of knowledge and research.

“Subject to national legislation, respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and promote their wider application with the approval and involvement of the holders of such knowledge, innovations and practices and encourage the equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of such knowledge innovations and practices. (art. 8j, CBD in 1992).

cf. Report of the 11th conference of CDB parties, Hyderabad, 2012, p.173 & s.

Agreement on conservation of polar bears, Oslo, 15.11.1973 (between: Canada, Denmark/Greenland, Norway, the Soviet Union/Russia, and the United States): art.3: “Subject to the provisions of Articles II and IV any Contracting Party may allow the taking of polar bears when such taking is carried out: (…) d) by local people using traditional methods in the exercise of their traditional rights and in accordance with the laws of that Party; (…)”.

“Recognizing that communities, in particular indigenous communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals, play an important role in the production, safeguarding, maintenance and re-creation of the intangible cultural heritage, thus helping to enrich cultural diversity and human creativity, (…)”,” we mean by “intangible cultural heritage” the practices, representations, expressions, knowledge, skills – as well as the instruments, objects, artefacts and cultural spaces associated therewith – that communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals recognize as part of their cultural heritage. This intangible cultural heritage, transmitted from generation to generation, is constantly recreated by communities and groups in response to their environment, their interaction with nature and their history, and provides them with a sense of identity and continuity, thus promoting respect for cultural diversity and human creativity (art.1).

For purposes of the Convention, “Cultural diversity” refers to the manifold ways in which the cultures of groups and societies find expression. These expressions are passed on within and among groups and societies. Cultural diversity is made manifest not only through the varied ways in which the cultural heritage of humanity is expressed, augmented and transmitted through the variety of cultural expressions, but also through diverse modes of artistic creation, production, dissemination, distribution and enjoyment, whatever the means and technologies used (art.4). The objectives of the Convention are in particular”(a) to protect and promote the diversity of cultural expressions; (…) (d) to foster interculturality in order to develop cultural interaction in the spirit of building bridges among peoples; (e) to promote respect for the diversity of cultural expressions and raise awareness of its value at the local, national and international levels; (…) (art 1).

Essential text responding to natives’ demands … on paper: “Respecting native knowledge, cultures and traditional practices contributes to a sustainable and equitable development of the environment and its proper management” (considering that) “natives, people and individuals, have the right not to be subjected to forced assimilation or destruction of their culture” (art. 8),” natives have the right to maintain and strengthen their special spiritual ties with lands, territories, waters and coastal areas and other resources they traditionally own or occupy and use, and to assume their responsibilities of the matter toward future generations” (art. 25), “to recognize the rights of native peoples in what concerns their lands, territories and resources” (art. 26 & 27).

Decree of creation of the Park n ° 2007–266 of 27 February 2007.

Article R170–56 of State Domain Code recognizes the rights of collective use to the populations. These rights of use relate to so-called “traditional” subsistence activities, including hunting and fishing (Decree No. 87–267, amended by Decree No. 92–46 of 16 January 1992).

art. L331–15–3 of the French Environment Code.

Charter of 30 October 2013, approved by Decree No 2013–968 of 28 October 2013.

Cf. ongoing thesis by Aline Treillard: “La construction d’un régime juridique de la nature ordinaire” (viva in 2019), University of Limoges/CRIDEAU under the direction of Professor Jessica Malkoviak.

On legal empiricism, cf. Perrin 1997; Millard 2002; Serverin 2002; Ross 2004.

Normative creation does not depend solely on an institutional procedure: “the group possesses the capacity of creating norms that come to legal life as a spontaneous social phenomenon” (Perrin 1997, 44). For Perrin (and us), it is therefore unwise to call these spontaneous legal phenomena “infra-laws”.

As an identity matrix of the group. The paradigm is a type of representation of the world, a worldview model which rests a base defined as a cultural production or an intellectual current.

For the author, “(…) the fate of the idea of social law is linked (…) to the struggle against “fetishism of the law”, a vestige of legal individualism glorifying the authoritarian will of the State that dominates all the others. However, since the beginning of the twentieth century, a whole doctrinal wave… has increasingly dispossessed state law, not only of its supposed monopoly and its supremacy, but also of its creative force …” (Gurvitch 1931, 214).

“Legal sociologists understand the diversity of legal orders, ranging from positive to infra-law. Common rights fail to be stifled by state rules. The customary laws of colonized countries have not disappeared by imposing foreign standards (…)” (Ribordy 2010).

Decree No. 55–530 of 20 May 1955 on the reorganization of land and property in French West Africa and French Equatorial Africa, see Decree No. 56–704 of 10 July 1956 laying down the conditions for the application of the Decree of 20 May 1955.

Thomas Kuhn, 1972, cited by Rumelhard Guy (2005).

According to the author, “analogies or models are not presented by themselves. They are chosen, and the inspiration for the choice sensitizes the latent presence of paradigmatic values, of collective apperception frameworks, characteristics of a determined cultural space-time”.

“A social representation is an organization of socially constructed opinions, relative to a given object, resulting from a set of social communications, making it possible to control the environment and to appropriate it according to symbolic elements specific to its group memberships” (Roussiau et Bonardi, cited by Moliner et al. 2002, 13).

Among others: Romano 1919; Arnaud 1981; Rouland 1988, 1991; Luhmann 1994; Le Roy 1999; Barrière and Barrière 2002; Sacco 2008.

Realism is a wave of the general theory of law, which is defined as “an attitude or approach, wishing to describe the law as it “really is (…). It claims to design law as an empirical object and not as a set of ideal entities with a mandatory value” (Troper 2007.) The realistic term is “taken in an extremely banal sense: to shift discourse on the law to discourse on what exists, on what is real. This obliges us to define empirically (and precisely) the facts of reality that are designated as law» (Millard 2014).

Science or theory of intrinsic values.

In France, the notion of custom has existed since the early Middle Ages. It denotes “an unwritten law, introduced by the practices and acts of continual repetition of men or practitioners, which have been used publicly without opposition from the majority of the people, the time necessary to prescribe it” (definition dated XVI by Philippe Wielant, quoted by Gilissen 1982, 21).

Cf. Example of customs (Committee for Historical and Scientific Studies of French West Africa 1939).

See the works of Etienne Le Roy, who presents the law as a tripod comprising legal habitus, alongside rules and customs, 1999, p. 189 & s.

The psychic envelope is a “container for the activity of thought and affects” (Anzieu 1987 in Ciprut 2007, 35). We are supported by the psychic, familial, cultural, social and environmental envelopes: “If a human being comes into the world after being carried for nine months in the maternal uterine envelope, the human being continues to be carried by different envelopes, internal and external, throughout his/her existence” (Liechti M (2007), 35, “Le cadre culturel et les enveloppes psychiques”).

For the author, “the framework is an invariant form of organization of activity and conduct for a class of predetermined situations”. The function of the framework is “to generate activity and conduct in situations”.

The habitus defines dispositions which are regular behaviors founded objectively from the logic of practice (Bourdieu 1986: 40); “... habitus produces practices (…) it ensures the active presence of past experiences which, deposited in each organism in the form of a perception framework, thought and action, tend to ensure conformity of practices and their consistency over time “(1980, 91) more surely than all formal rules and all explicit norms.

“Habitus is a system of dispositions and of competences specific to a particular field of cultural production, the matrix of perceptions, judgments and actions shared by all actors who belong to this field and deployed by them in their struggle to monopolize resources or forms of “capital”” (Howes 1996, 28).

“(…) African communities have generated, through their history, their own land systems whose coherence and logic can only be understood by looking at them for what they are and not for what they lack” (Ouédraogo 2011, 79).

Cf. Michaïlidis-Nouaros 1982.

Edelman 2002.

The author gives the following definition, one which is closely related to our approach: “the appearance of an auto or endo-normativity. Instead of being organized around the pole and the notion of public power as it was the case until now, this normativity is now organized around the opposite pole: that of civil society and the associations that are supposed to represent it or to translate its intentions, worries and concerns. It is supposed to be a normativity based on development and respect shown by the very actors who formulated rules (in the form, for example, of codes of conduct or good practices) and which they themselves apply. We find here the decentralization, the non-hierarchization that regulators demand, making it possible to base and anchor the legitimacy of the rules of operation through various techniques. These techniques aim in particular at guaranteeing (but in a different way than in traditional normativity) transparency, predictability, impartiality of the actors’ action - which enables them to obtain – that on which legitimacy is analyzed – a recognition by their peers (other regulators) and by actors of the system” (Timsit 2005, 85).

Essential text responding to natives’ demands … on paper: “Respecting native knowledge, cultures and traditional practices contributes to a sustainable and equitable development of the environment and its proper management” (considering that) “natives, people and individuals, have the right not to be subjected to forced assimilation or destruction of their culture” (art. 8),” natives have the right to maintain and strengthen their distinctive spiritual relationship with their traditionally owned or otherwise occupied and used lands, territories, waters and coastal seas and other resources and to uphold their responsibilities to future generations in this regard” (art. 25), “to recognize the rights of indigenous peoples concerning their lands, territories and resources” (art. 26 & 27).

Art. 6 defining local land charters of Act No. 034-2009/AN of 16 June 2009 on rural land tenure (Burkina Faso).

Art.9 Act n°2007-03 of 16 October 2007 on rural land tenure.

cf. Merle 1998; Lafargue 1994, 1996, 1999.

Jean Cruet, 1908, cited by Arnaud André-Jean 1981, 137.

http://www.worldometers.info.

Living Planet Report 2014, WWF; Bonneuil and Fressoz 2013.

See: http://www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/GFN/page/earth_overshoot_day/.

According to the World Meteorological Organization, press release 991, 26 May 2014.

Adoption of an agreement having legal power developed under the convention and applicable to all parties on 12 December 2015, Conference of the Parties to the Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992), 21st session, Paris, 30 November-11 December.

Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions (Unesco, Paris, 20 October 2005); Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (Unesco, Paris, 17 October 2003).

“Two-thirds of humanity is not yet fully determined by the rules of a globalized market and continue, more or less systematically, to prohibit or ignore the sale of land” (Le Roy 2011, 348).

“The principles of the construction of social reality must be sought first in the relationships between humans and their natural environment” (Descola, 1992), cited by Charbonnier 2015, 286.

In his thesis, the author takes up the works of Durkheim (The Elementary Forms of Religious Life 1960), Lévis-Strauss (La pensée Sauvage 1962), Descola (Beyond Nature and Culture 2005).

Lévêque et al. 2003; See Christian Lévêque’s contribution in this book.

An economic order called into question recently by a Report, dated 9 August 2010, of the Secretary-General of the United Nations: “An overview of the major economic and general policy issues that must be resolved internationally to ensure supported economic growth and sustainable development, which should be equitable and inclusive, in addition to the role of the United Nations in this regard with a view to establishing a new international economic order “.

“An ontology, for me, is simply the established result of a mode of identification” (Descola 2014, 237).

The ontological formulas developed by Descola proceed from a combination of interiority and physicality. “Interiority” should be understood as “the range of properties commonly associated with mind, soul or consciousness - intentionality, subjectivity, reflexivity, affects, ability to signify or to dream. We can also include the immaterial principles supposed to cause the effect, such as breath or vital energy, as well as more abstract notions such as the idea that I share with others the same essence, the same principle of action or the same origin” (Descola 2005, 168). “Physicality” concerns “the external form, the substance, the perceptual and sensorial-motor physiological process, or even the temperament or the way of acting in the world insofar as they manifest the influence exerted on conduct or habitus by body moods, diets, anatomical features or a particular mode of reproduction” (Descola 2005, 169). For the author, physicality is not the materiality of bodies, but “it is the set of visible and tangible expressions that dispositions belonging to an entity take whenever they are deemed to result from the morphological and physiological characteristics Intrinsic to this entity” (Descola 2005, 169).

The Universal Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UN 2007) does not define the meaning of indigenous peoples. For the World Bank, indigenous peoples are the peoples who “are culturally distinct societies and communities. The land on which they live and the natural resources on which they depend are inextricably linked to their identities, cultures, livelihoods, physical, and spiritual well-being” (http://www.worldbank.org). A definition in 1982 is given by a working group in the United Nations (on Indigenous populations): “Indigenous populations are composed of the existing descendants of peoples who inhabited the present territory of a country wholly or partially at the time when persons of a different culture or ethnic origin arrived there from other parts of the world, overcame them, and by conquest, settlement or other means, reduced them to a non-dominant or colonial situation; who today live more in conformity with their particular social, economic and cultural customs and traditions than with the institutions of the country of which they now form a part, under a State structure which incorporates mainly the national, social and cultural characteristics of other segments of the population which are predominant.

Although they have not suffered conquest or colonization, isolated or marginal groups existing in the country should also be regarded as covered by the notion of “indigenous populations” for the following reasons: they are descendants of groups which were in the territory at the time when other groups of different cultures or ethnic origins arrived there; precisely because of their isolation from other segments of the country’s population they have preserved almost intact the customs and traditions of their ancestors which are similar to those characteristics as indigenous, and they are, even if only formally, placed under a State structure which incorporates national, social and cultural characteristics alien to theirs”.

(U.N. Economic and Social Council Commission on Human Rights, Preliminary Report of the Problem of Discrimination Against Indigenous Populations. U.N. Document E/CN.4/Sub.2/L.566, Chapter 11).

Review conducted in 2011 and revised in 2013 by Patrick Kulesza (GITPA – www.gitpa.org) and by Irène Bellier (CNRS/SOGIP). Total estimated by the UN according to Bellier 2013, 21.

Local community can be defined as a population, a group living on a geographic territory associated with a sense of belonging, sharing an environment (see o “Sense of Community, McMillan and Chavis 1986).

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Titel: Socio-ecological Viability and Legal Regulation: Pluralism and Endogeneity – For an Anthropological Dimension of Environmental Law
verfasst von: Olivier Barrière
Mohamed Behnassi
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Buch: Coviability of Social and Ecological Systems: Reconnecting Mankind to the Biosphere in an Era of Global Change
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-78496-0

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-319-78497-7

Copyright-Jahr: 2019
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78497-7_6

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