Introduction
Related work
TDSPP
Type | Algorithm | Literature |
---|---|---|
Approximation algorithm | Dijkstra | |
K-fastest paths algorithm | [10] | |
A* algorithm | ||
Dynamic discretization discovery algorithms | [14] | |
Algorithms based on Bender decomposition | [15] | |
Improved AND/OR Tree Search Algorithm (AO ∗) | [16] | |
Pseudo-FPTAS | [17] | |
ε-approximation algorithms | ||
Output-sensitive algorithm | ||
Dynamic-moment-matching-based A* algorithm | [23] | |
Time-increment based dynamic programming method | ||
Mobile crowdsourcing model | [26] | |
Heuristic algorithm | Simulated annealing algorithm (SA) | [27] |
Tabu search algorithm (TS) | [28] | |
Ant colony algorithm (ACO) | [29] | |
Single-source single-destination algorithm | [30] | |
Nonconvex mixed-integer nonlinear programs | [31] | |
Artificial intelligence method | Fuzzy time-dependent network (FTDN) | |
Time-delay neural network (TDNN) | [34] | |
Practical feedback neural network (PFNN) | [35] | |
Q-learning | ||
Time impulse neural network (TINN) | [37] | |
Sarsa, Q-learning and double Q-learning method | [38] |
SRNN
RSA
Situations | Content |
---|---|
Fixed constants | |
K optimal solutions of project time management problem [44] | |
Node division problem [46] | |
Linear cellular automaton model [47] | |
Many-to-many path optimization problem [49] | |
Vehicle pollutant emissions [51] | |
Binary representation ripple expansion genetic algorithm [53] | |
Spatial and temporal characteristics of infectious diseases [55] | |
Multi-intelligence emergency evacuation simulation system [56] | |
Minimum edge weights | |
Multi-start-multi-endpoint SPTP [59] | |
Path optimization problem [60] | |
Fuzzy multi-objective path optimization problem [61] | |
Potential for path length to be affected by interference [62] | |
Dynamic change function | Path optimization problem in dynamic disaster environment [63] |
Time-dependent shortest path problem
Time-dependent road network
Problem description
Structural recurrent neural network
Speed prediction problem
Spatio-temporal graph representation
SRNN model architecture
Notations | Meaning |
---|---|
C(u) | Edges connected to node u |
atS | Fixed-length vector |
WES | The weight associated with the embedding function of spatial edge |
WLS | The weight associated with the LSTM cell of spatial edge |
WET | The weight associated with the embedding function of the temporal edge |
WLT | The weight associated with the LSTM cell of the temporal edge |
λES | The size of the spatial edgeRNN |
λET | The size of the temporal edgeRNN |
ht−1S | The hidden state of spatial edge, dimension of |ES|× λES |
ht−1T | The hidden state of temporal edge, dimension of |ET|× λET |
htC(u) | The hidden state of the edge |
htSu | The hidden state of the average spatial influence to node u |
htTu | The hidden state of the temporal-spatial influence to node u |
Htu | The influence of the spatio-temporal edges associated with node u |
WE | The weight associated with the embedding function for node features |
WEH | The weight associated with the embedding function for the concatenated hidden state |
WL | The weight associated with the LSTM cell |
WO | The weight of the linear layer |
Ripple spreading algorithm
Ripple spreading principle
RSA operational steps
Notations | Meaning |
---|---|
G | Time-dependent traffic road network |
V | Node set |
N | Total number of nodes |
E | Edge set |
M | Total number of edges |
i,j | Neighboring nodes, (i,j) ∊ E |
t | Time |
s | Source node |
d | Destination node |
ri | Ripple generated by node i |
v(i,j,t) | Spreading speed of ripple ri from node i to node j at time step t |
R(i,j,t) | The cumulative ripple radius of ripple ri from node i to node j at time step t |
C(i,j) | The link value between node i and node j |
N(i) | The set of all neighboring nodes of node i |
E(j) | The node that activates node j; E(j) = i means node j is activated by ripple ri of node i |
S(i) | 1 or 2 or 3, node i is in inactive or activated or dead state |
tre | Remaining time after a ripple reaches and activates a new node in a certain time unit |
Ωi | The cumulative objective value from source node s to node i |
p* | The optimal path from source node s to destination node d |
SRNN-RSA framework
Experimental validation
Experimental data
Dataset | Road segment | Observation interval/min | Time step |
---|---|---|---|
Santander, Spain | 16 | 15 | 10 |
Guangzhou, China | 214 | 10 | 10 |
SRNN parameters
Hyperparameters | Value |
---|---|
NodeRNN size, λ | 64 |
Spatial edgeRNN size, λES | 64 |
Temporal edgeRNN size, λET | 64 |
Embedding size | 32 |
Learning rate | 0.0005 |
Decay rate | 0.99 |
Dropout rate | 0.5 |
Result analysis of Santander
Road segment | Traffic speed type | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Prediction | Historical average | Fitting Gaussian functions | Fitting sigmoid functions | |
237 | SRNN | 22.53 | \(\mu = 22.53,\sigma = 7.48\) | \(v(t) = \frac{22.53}{{1 + e^{ - 1.15 \times (t + 2.78)} }}\) |
238 | 22.47 | \(\mu = 22.47,\sigma = 7.54\) | \(v(t) = \frac{22.47}{{1 + e^{ - 1.59 \times (t + 35.79)} }}\) | |
239 | 15.19 | \(\mu = 15.19,\sigma = 10.83\) | \(v(t) = \frac{15.19}{{1 + e^{ - 1.18 \times (t + 20.25)} }}\) | |
245 | 27.30 | \(\mu = 27.30,\sigma = 11.84\) | \(v(t) = \frac{27.30}{{1 + e^{ - 0.08 \times (t + 3.51)} }}\) | |
241 | 24.16 | \(\mu = 24.16,\sigma = 5.13\) | \(v(t) = \frac{24.16}{{1 + e^{ - 0.06 \times (t + 34.66)} }}\) | |
247 | 23.05 | \(\mu = 23.05,\sigma = 16.37\) | \(v(t) = \frac{23.05}{{1 + e^{ - 0.09 \times (t + 2.62)} }}\) | |
250 | 27.39 | \(\mu = 27.39,\sigma = 11.13\) | \(v(t) = \frac{27.39}{{1 + e^{ - 0.03 \times (t + 32.91)} }}\) | |
248 | 42.96 | \(\mu = 42.96,\sigma = 19.78\) | \(v(t) = \frac{42.96}{{1 + e^{ - 2.36 \times (t + 19.03)} }}\) | |
246 | 28.81 | \(\mu = 28.81,\sigma = 15.03\) | \(v(t) = \frac{28.81}{{1 + e^{ - 0.02 \times (t + 35.52)} }}\) | |
249 | 15.31 | \(\mu = 15.31,\sigma = 7.73\) | \(v(t) = \frac{15.31}{{1 + e^{{ - 4.74 \times (t{ + }1.72)}} }}\) | |
251 | 21.34 | \(\mu = 21.34,\sigma = 15.19\) | \(v(t) = \frac{21.34}{{1 + e^{ - 116.89 \times (t + 753.49)} }}\) | |
252 | 22.50 | \(\mu = 22.50,\sigma = 7.46\) | \(v(t) = \frac{22.50}{{1 + e^{ - 643.91 \times (t + 8.91)} }}\) | |
253 | 22.48 | \(\mu = 22.48,\sigma = 7.23\) | \(v(t) = \frac{22.48}{{1 + e^{ - 1.83 \times (t + 15.05)} }}\) | |
254 | 22.62 | \(\mu = 22.62,\sigma = 7.23\) | \(v(t) = \frac{22.62}{{1 + e^{ - 2.32 \times (t + 0.19)} }}\) | |
255 | 22.54 | \(\mu = 22.54,\sigma = 7.27\) | \(v(t) = \frac{22.54}{{1 + e^{ - 18.40 \times (t + 1804.37)} }}\) | |
256 | 22.51 | \(\mu = 22.51,\sigma = 7.25\) | \(v(t) = \frac{22.51}{{1 + e^{ - 11.77 \times (t + 5.85)} }}\) |
Source | Destination | Algorithm | Path | Length/km | Time/h | Time percentage error |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
7 | 3 | Real-RSA | 16.38 | 0.784 | ||
SRNN-RSA | 0.685 | − 12.63% | ||||
AVG-RSA | 0.618 | − 21.17% | ||||
Gaussian-RSA | 1.033 | 31.76% | ||||
Sigmoid-RSA | 0.674 | − 14.03% | ||||
5 | 2 | Real-RSA | 8.165 | 0.351 | ||
SRNN-RSA | 0.364 | 3.704% | ||||
AVG-RSA | 8.187 | 0.237 | − 32.48% | |||
Gaussian-RSA | 0.266 | − 24.22% | ||||
Sigmoid-RSA | 8.165 | 0.368 | 4.843% |
Result analysis of Guangzhou
Source | Destination | Algorithm | Path | Length/km | Time/h | Time percentage error |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
59 | 117 | Real-RSA | [59, 178, 172, 8, 117] | 37.01 | 1.414 | |
SRNN-RSA | 1.382 | − 2.26% | ||||
AVG-RSA | [59, 151, 22, 125, 117] | 43.23 | 1.058 | − 25.18% | ||
Gaussian-RSA | [59, 119, 47, 33, 117] | 47.01 | 1.362 | − 3.68% | ||
Sigmoid-RSA | [59, 153, 170, 16, 117] | 41.63 | 1.487 | 5.16% | ||
9 | 204 | Real-RSA | [9, 31, 12, 89, 204] | 65.42 | 2.012 | |
SRNN-RSA | [9, 174, 81, 77, 204] | 67.24 | 2.265 | 12.57% | ||
AVG-RSA | [9, 147, 54, 37, 204] | 75.89 | 1.757 | − 12.67% | ||
Gaussian-RSA | [9, 142, 205, 151, 204] | 88.09 | 2.292 | 13.92% | ||
Sigmoid-RSA | [9, 113, 66, 175, 204] | 85.33 | 2.668 | 32.60% |
Path | Length/km | Time/h | Accuracy rate | Running time/s | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
SRNN-RSA | [59, 178, 172, 8, 117] | 37.01 | 1.382 | 100% | 1.84582 |
Dijkstra | 1.694 | 86% | 12.44784 | ||
BB | 2.122 | 83% | 15.59052 | ||
GA | [59, 24, 15, 156, 117] | 66.51 | 2.380 | 0 | 5.62203 |
SA | [59, 76, 30, 131, 117] | 54.59 | 2.021 | 0 | 3.83403 |
ACO | [59, 178, 172, 8, 117] | 37.05 | 1.998 | 66.67% | 3.39089 |
Q-learning | [59, 32, 193, 50, 117] | 50.24 | 2.099 | 0 | 6.35897 |
Ablation study
Dataset | Source | Destination | Algorithm | Path | Length/km | Time/h |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Santander | 7 | 3 | SRNN-RSA | [3–7] | 16.38 | 0.685 |
RSA | 4.036 | |||||
5 | 2 | SRNN-RSA | [1, 2, 5] | 8.165 | 0.364 | |
RSA | 2.012 | |||||
Guangzhou | 59 | 117 | SRNN-RSA | [59, 178, 172, 8, 117] | 37.01 | 1.414 |
RSA | [59, 210, 141, 155, 117] | 45.76 | 8.252 | |||
9 | 204 | SRNN-RSA | [9, 174, 81, 77, 204] | 67.24 | 2.265 | |
RSA | [9, 117, 166, 156, 104] | 79.05 | 14.277 |