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2014 | Buch

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Sustainable Cities and Military Installations

herausgegeben von: Igor Linkov

Verlag: Springer Netherlands

Buchreihe : NATO Science for Peace and Security Series C: Environmental Security

Enthalten in: Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" , Springer Professional "Technik" , Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

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Über dieses Buch

Access to reliable and affordable energy, water, and services is an important determinant of the prosperity of cities along with effective mission sustainment at military installations. The idea for this book was conceived at the NATO Advanced Research Workshop (ARW) in June 2012 in Hella, Iceland. The workshop was attended by 50 scientists, engineers, and policymakers representing 15 different nations and multiple fields of expertise, reflecting the global and interdisciplinary nature of climate change and sustainability research. The focus of the workshop was on ways in which military installations and small cities can integrate energy, water, and infrastructure sustainability strategies into city and installation management plans that account for climate change uncertainties. The organization of the book reflects major topic sessions and discussions during the workshop.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Frontmatter

Sustainable Cities and Military Installations: Challenges

Frontmatter

Chapter 1. Sustainable Urban Systems: A Review of How Sustainability Indicators Inform Decisions

Abstract

The Brundtland commission defined sustainable development as: development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Butlin (1989) Our common future, by World Commission on Environment and Development. Oxford University Press, London, 1987). Translating this definition into an urban context has led to a focus on the use of indicators and indicator sets to quantify sustainability and guide government and stakeholder decisions. Although sustainability assessment methodologies demonstrate a direct link between indicator use and decisions made, there is limited discussion on how indicators actually help decisions. In this review, we examine 22 applied urban sustainability studies to assess whether indicators foster decisions. The 22 studies were analyzed on six dimensions that play a role in indicator development and use: the indicators themselves, stakeholder involvement, geographic and cultural impact, framing sustainability, definition of urban, and decision-making. Our results show that the connection between indicators and their effect on decision outcomes is not considered in indicator development, and although decision-making is briefly discussed by most of the evaluators it is rarely explored in-depth. In addition, vague definitions of sustainability and urban, geographic and cultural diversity, and a lack of concrete measures of the social qualities of sustainability have hampered the ability of indicators to create holistic decisions. We conclude that indicators themselves do not foster decisions and must be applied within a broader framework that can incorporate social and perceptual issues with indicators, such as multi-criteria decision analysis. Otherwise, the lack of clarity found in sustainability assessment prevents substantive decisions to improve environmental, economic, and social qualities of urban systems.

Elisa K. Tatham, Daniel A. Eisenberg, Igor Linkov

Chapter 2. Military Installations and Cities in the Twenty-First Century: Towards Sustainable Military Installations and Adaptable Cities

Abstract

Military installations and cities in the twenty-first century share many of the same dynamics and face many of the same challenges – i.e. the same environmental, climatic, and anthropogenic pressures. The military response to these challenges is, however, constrained by hierarchy and the culture of command and control. In a city, informal adaptations, experiments and solutions can arise to pressing urban issues that were unanticipated or unanswered by the formal city. By contrast, decisions and solutions in military installations have traditionally come down the chain of command. In an ever more complex world in which the future is ambiguous and change is a certainty, top-down decision making and the predictive sciences, alone, will not be enough to ensure a sustainable future. Cities and military installations will need to be adaptable and resilient to survive the complex, ever-changing, and uncertain threats of the future.

B. A. Harmon, W. D. Goran, R. S. Harmon

Chapter 3. Assessing Adaptive Capacity of Cities and Regions: Concerns Over Methodology and Usability

Abstract

Cities are key locations within which responses to climate change need to be taken. The vulnerability of cities depends on combined factors of exposure to climate impacts, sensitivity of the system and adaptive capacity of the city that can be mobilised for action. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, adaptive capacity is defined as the ability or potential of a system to respond successfully to climate variability and change, and includes adjustments in both behaviour and in resources and technologies. Determinants of adaptive capacity are considered to include issues such as political institutions, economic resources, technological potential, infrastructure and equity.

Many studies have attempted to assess adaptive capacity of systems, and drawing on earlier work, this chapter presents results from a study that mapped adaptive capacity on the regional and city level. The results show widely differing capacities within cities and regions in Europe that can potentially have an impact on adaptation policy. Urging caution in terms of using the results to steer policy, this chapter concludes by discussing the shortcomings of adaptive capacity assessments in terms of methodological challenges.

S. Juhola

Chapter 4. Survey: Resource Footprints and Environmental Security at DoD Installations

Abstract

Environmental issues are increasingly at the forefront of planning for US military installations, for a variety of reasons. DoD efforts to reduce the resource footprint of installations offer several benefits, but may incur risks as well. In addition, climate change may pose significant, if longer-term, environmental risks to both military and secured industrial installations. This paper will provide a survey of these issues and how they have heightened the profile of environmental factors in installation security and management.

This paper will provide a brief survey of the efforts of the US military to reduce energy, water, and waste footprints of military installations, which has accelerated in recent years. These efforts, if successful, offer cost savings as well as increased security for these installations. However, significant challenges exist. For example, alternative energy technologies offer reduced vulnerability to oil price shocks; however, many of these technologies require rare earth element (REE) inputs, which are almost exclusively sourced, at the moment, from China. Shifting to “green” energy therefore may replace vulnerability to oil shocks with exposure to REE market manipulation. This is just one example of the complex questions that have emerged as the US military has pursued goals of sustainability and security in energy and water use at military installations.

In addition, DoD installations must assess the environmental risks posed by climate change. A number of climate-associated risks, including more powerful storms, altered precipitation patterns, and related shifts in wildfire and flood scenarios, have the potential to affect the security of these installations. This paper will also briefly survey these risks and efforts by the military to address them.

R. Pincus

Chapter 5. Sustainability Awareness and Expertise: Structuring the Cognitive Processes for Solving Wicked Problems and Achieving an Adaptive-State

Abstract

The term, “wicked problem,” describes the intractable nature of social policy and planning problems that are complex, engender multiple and often irreconcilable stakeholder views, have no definitive formulation, no solution algorithm or single best solution, little tolerance for imbalances or judgment error, and no single repository of expertise from which trustworthy solutions might emerge. This also describes problems of sustainability and reflects a consistent theme that emerges from the last four decades for business, science and society – the need to improve understanding of complex systems and their interactions, incorporate non-expert knowledge and public values, improve communication between expert and lay groups, and foster deliberation between business and public groups with competing deontological views.

We posit that a structured approach to problems of sustainability integrating (a) influence modeling, (b) assessments of sustainability, uncertainty, challenges and values, (c) multi-criteria decision analytics, (d) data visualization, and (e) building social capital can effectively address wicked problems. Rather than reductively “solve a problem” this approach results in a new, strategic managed-resiliency and persistent adaptive-state of coevolving capabilities we call Sustainability Awareness and Sustainability Expertise. Within this sustainability framework stakeholder communities make better versus right or wrong decisions and Sustainability becomes a practice versus a result.

D. S. Sweet, T. P. Seager, S. Tylock, J. Bullock, I. Linkov, D. J. Colombo, Uwe Unrath

Water

Frontmatter

Chapter 6. Sustainable Water Resources Management: Challenges and Methods

Abstract

This chapter provides findings of a working group from the NATO conference on Sustainable Cities and Military Installations, whose purpose was to identify the emerging challenges and methods in water resources management. The chapter identifies several themes of sustainable water resources planning, including: (i) the triple net zero concept of water, energy, and materials; (ii) risk, uncertainty, and future scenarios as multiple planning criteria; (iii) interactions within and across multiple spatial and temporal scales; and (iv) application of the second law of thermodynamics to ecological systems.

M. C. Hamilton, W. Goldsmith, R. Harmon, D. Lewis, B. Srdjevic, M. Goodsite, J. H. Lambert, M. Macdonell

Chapter 7. Innovative Group Decision Making Framework for Sustainable Management of Regional Hydro-Systems

Abstract

This paper proposes innovative group decision making framework for the sustainable management of regional hydro-systems. It is based on the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) philosophy and two conceptually different models of treating decision making problem in group framework without and with consensus. Typical hydro-system in Serbia is used as a case study to demonstrate how different aggregation schemes influence resulting group decision(s). Different from our earlier work (Srdjevic and Srdjevic, Sustainable use and development of watersheds. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 201–213, 2008), here the group of twelve individuals participated in evaluation of five water uses of the hydro-system. Weight of each decision maker in the group is defined according to his/her demonstrated consistency and used as an input to the aggregation process to derive group decision(s). Differences in ranking water uses obtained without consensus and with consensus indicated importance of selecting proper aggregation scheme. We recommend application of a consensus based aggregation method because each participating individual has a ‘vote’ which counts in the final decision, so dominance is at least reduced (if not fully excluded), and finally, the final decision is expectably acceptable for all participants at the end of process.

Z. Srdjevic, B. Srdjevic, B. Blagojevic, M. Pipan

Chapter 8. Future Water Availability, Sustainable Dryland Agriculture, Desertification and the Second Law of Thermodynamics

Abstract

Sustainable use of water and the future of food production have become topics of critical importance over the last decade. In northern and remote communities and arid zones around the globe, water scarcity, the rising cost of energy and food shortages have come to the forefront in discussions of sustainable development. Food production has become the biggest water user across the globe as industrial agriculture uses about 70 % of the total freshwater withdrawn each year (World Economic Forum, Managing our future water needs for agriculture, industry, human health and the environment. Discussion document for the world economic forum annual meeting, Davos, Switzerland, 2008). Expansion of the world’s deserts in many regions may be a canary in the coal mine that is signaling our unsustainable approach to these challenges. This chapter looks at the growing problem of drought, desertification and food shortages, suggesting a systems approach that relies on the 2nd law of thermodynamics and looks at the potential of using ecosystems as a guide to development of sustainable solutions to these looming challenges.

D. P. Lewis

Chapter 9. Multi-Criteria Evaluation of Groundwater Ponds as Suppliers to Urban Water Distribution Systems

Abstract

Freshwater for urban water supplies in growing cities is often secured through groundwater ponds. In the majority of Serbian cities, an increase in population creates a need for investments into new or reconstruction of existing distribution networks. We propose the use of two methods, the analytic hierarchy process and the consensus convergence model, as a group decision making framework for determining the importance of Novi Sad city ponds and deciding the optimal strategy of investing into the technical realization of infrastructure relying on the ponds. Three experts participated in the evaluation of three ponds using the following criteria set: capacity, water quality, cost of water, natural protection, recharging capabilities, technical accessibility, and environmental impact. Experts found the final result acceptable and the proposed methodology easy to understand and implement. They also agreed that the result can be used as a reliable basis for further economic analysis and feasibility studies.

B. Srdjevic, Z. Srdjevic, B. Blagojevic, O. Cukaliev

Chapter 10. Pilot Study of Contaminants near Station Nord, a Military Airbase and Research Station in NE Greenland

Abstract

There are very few studies of contaminants in waters, sediments and air in the vicinity of high Arctic military bases. This pilot study was commissioned by the Royal Danish Air Force and conducted around Station Nord, a small remote Danish Air Base and military station in northern Greenland, with the aim of determining the importance of local sources versus long range transport of contaminants. Trace metals (including As, Hg, Cd and Pb) were measured in freshwater and marine sediment cores, seawater and air within 3 km of the base. Concentrations of trace metals (including As, Hg, Cd and Pb) were analysed in the marine and freshwater sediment cores. Furthermore, air pollutants were measured to quantify emissions from local point sources compared to long range transport. All trace metals except As showed low concentrations in both a lake (Sommersøen) and in the sea (the Wandel Sea). As was found to be higher than expected both in marine and lake sediments. The concentrations of certain heavy metals were higher than would be expected from an undisturbed remote location. At present, there is not yet enough information to distinguish between local sources and long range transport as concentrations were found to be higher than expected both in marine and lake sediments. Some of this could be explained from the lithology but a major part of the variability remains unattributed and needs further study, though it is certainly possible that the concentrations were due to local sources and rubbish disposal practice.

The measurement of atmospheric pollutants upwind from the Station demonstrated a minor influence of local sources and the observed levels can be explained by long range transport. Monitoring of atmospheric pollutants in the high Arctic should be continued to assess the long term trend of load of pollutants to the Arctic environment from the atmosphere. The decision has been made in 2013 to expand the capabilities of Station Nord as a high Arctic research station with facilities supplementary and complementary to those found at other High Arctic Stations such as Alert, Canada; Thule, Greenland; Spitsbergen Norway, and Barrow, Alaska; therefore we describe in detail the Research Stations’ surrounding area and pertinent environmental data.

M. Goodsite, H. Skov, G. Asmund, O. Bennike, A. Feilberg, M. Glasius, A. Gross, M. H. Hermanson

Chapter 11. Sustainability of Water Supply at Military Installations, Kabul Basin, Afghanistan

Abstract

The Kabul Basin, including the city of Kabul, Afghanistan, is host to several military installations of Afghanistan, the United States, and other nations that depend on groundwater resources for water supply. These installations are within or close to the city of Kabul. Groundwater also is the potable supply for the approximately four million residents of Kabul. The sustainability of water resources in the Kabul Basin is a concern to military operations, and Afghan water-resource managers, owing to increased water demands from a growing population and potential mining activities. This study illustrates the use of chemical and isotopic analysis, groundwater flow modeling, and hydrogeologic investigations to assess the sustainability of groundwater resources in the Kabul Basin.

Water supplies for military installations in the southern Kabul Basin were found to be subject to sustainability concerns, such as the potential drying of shallow-water supply wells as a result of declining water levels. Model simulations indicate that new withdrawals from deep aquifers may have less of an impact on surrounding community water supply wells than increased withdrawals from near-surface aquifers. Higher rates of recharge in the northern Kabul Basin indicate that military installations in that part of the basin may have fewer issues with long-term water sustainability. Simulations of groundwater withdrawals may be used to evaluate different withdrawal scenarios in an effort to manage water resources in a sustainable manner in the Kabul Basin.

T. J. Mack, M. P. Chornack, I. M. Verstraeten

Energy

Frontmatter

Chapter 12. Sustainable Energy Pathways for Smart Urbanization and Off Grid Access: Options and Policies for Military Installations and Remote Communities

Abstract

Civilian and military communities alike must pursue innovative approaches to provide resilient, sustainable energy and water sources in the face of global challenges such as climate change, increasing population density, and ever more complex and vulnerable infrastructure systems. Equally compelling is the need for reliable energy supply to remote locations – whether they are military bases, humanitarian refugee camps or communities that have no access to electricity.

We emphasize technological pathways and options that do not rely on a long supply chain and those less reliant upon fossil fuels. To the extent possible, it is ideal to focus initially on highly efficient building, equipment, and infrastructure systems to reduce energy demand, and to harvest energy available on site through energy recovery processes and renewable power generation before applying other power sources. Meeting the needs of these communities requires a focus on the development of next generation transmission and distribution infrastructure, in coordination with effective local distributed generation. The concept of a smart energy network that integrates and exploits the power of information and communication technologies with advanced decision-making tools will be an important aspect of developments. Systematically engaging and building understanding amongst stakeholders – from decision makers and regulators, to utility operators, community leaders, and ultimately to community citizens – will be critical to building and sustaining portfolios that meet the diverse acceptability criteria for these next generation energy systems and technologies.

J. Nathwani, Z. Chen, M. P. Case, Z. A. Collier, Col. P. E. Roege, S. Thorne, W. Goldsmith, K. V. Ragnarsdóttir, P. M. Marks, M. Ogrodowski

Chapter 13. The Army Net Zero Waste Program and Its Implications for Energy

A Comparison of Waste Diversion to Landfilling and Waste to Energy

Abstract

Net Zero Waste is one of three Net Zero Goals (the other two being energy and water) that the U.S. Army has implemented for various test installations that it operates. The Net Zero Waste program focuses on diversion of the wastes, which means that it seeks to reduce wastes first, then focuses on finding useful repurposing and recycling of materials currently managed as wastes. The ultimate goal of the Net Zero Waste program is to achieve a complete elimination of wastes managed by landfilling, although it is more likely that the end result will have a small amount that will have to be managed in this manner. This contrasts with current practice, which largely promotes landfilling wastes. Equations were derived and presented that allow for the calculation of net energy savings (or possible losses in some cases) by applying the Net Zero hierarchy to wastes currently managed by landfilling. Reviewing the range of wastes commonly found in municipal wastes indicates that most can be repurposed, reused, recycled or composted in some form or another. Another management option would focus on promoting waste to energy, and these are discussed in the document. A waste to energy focus maybe a very effective approach for forward operating bases, which are temporary bases used by the Army (and other services) for expeditionary operations.

V. F. Medina, M. Wynter, S. Waisner, S. Cosper, G. Rodriguez

Chapter 14. Off-Grid Energy Access

Abstract

One critical aspect of the global transition to a low-carbon energy system is the provision of an adequate level of energy services to a large and growing proportion of humanity. The energy poor, living primarily off any electrical grid, offer a unique opportunity and new markets for a modular concept for energy access. New technologies, especially those making use of renewable sources of energy, will be key ingredients in insuring long-term sustainability, the quality of life of communities and mission success of military installations. This chapter examines the realities and challenges facing remote, off-grid communities and location, and introduces a modular design concept – Smart Micro-Grid within Smart Energy Network – that leverages technologies, such as small hydroelectric technology and thin-film solar, to capture distributed renewable energy resources.

Jatin Nathwani, Zhewen Chen

Infrastructure and Integration

Frontmatter

Chapter 15. Integrated Perspectives on Sustainable Infrastructures for Cities and Military Installations

Abstract

Central to all cities, communities, and military installations is the sustainability of infrastructures. Because infrastructures are intensely interconnected and interdependent, their sustainability is rooted in “systems of systems,” subject to cascading impacts as disruptions of one infrastructure spread to other infrastructures. As a result, assuring sustainable infrastructures requires an integrated perspective, recognizing not only connections between infrastructures but also connections between their sustainability and a wide range of threats and other driving forces, including but not limited to climate change. In most cases, such an integrated approach calls for broadening organizational practices to make them more participative, as well as strengthening the base of knowledge and technologies related to cross-sectoral infrastructure resilience.

M. Merad, T. J. Wilbanks, L. Halfaoui, A. Marcomini, C. ST. John, A. Tkachuk

Chapter 16. Natural Hazard Risk Assessment and Management Methodologies Review: Europe

Abstract

In the last decade, Europe-wide natural hazards have accounted for large numbers of the most serious causes of mortality; this death toll accompanies several billions of euros in damages. These facts support the need to reduce natural hazard impacts on the European territory in which, by in large, are going to augment in the future primarily due to climatic change and inappropriate land use management. In this context risk assessment and management through appropriate prevention and protection measures play fundamental roles in redefining natural hazard occurrences, risk areas prone to these events and reducing future phenomena at all levels. To better integrate the contextual role of risk assessment and management a descriptive state of the art based on scientific publications reviewed from 2000 to present is broken down into two domain types: hydro-meteorological and geophysical hazard events. A comparative examination draws potential viewpoints on choice of methodology which largely depends on the considered area and addressed target. Focus is put on analysing the prevention, protection and preparedness principle in which can define conclusive technical development; based on the results, some conclusions are drawn to support further developments at the knowledge-base level.

G. T. Cirella, E. Semenzin, A. Critto, A. Marcomini

Chapter 17. Sustainable Development and Adaptation to Climate Change: A Role for Defence? The French perspectives

Abstract

Since the mid-2000s, there have been debates on the issue of whether Defence should be involved in the fight against climate change. Many reports were issued by various actors among the American defence and security community (See CNA (2007) National Security and the threat of climate change. CNA Corporation, Alexandria). The CNA Military Advisory Board has issued three other reports on the link between energy and national security), eventually leading the US and the UK to identify climate change as a security issue in their respective security doctrines (US Department of Defence (2010) Quadriennal defence review (QDR) 2010. DOD, Washington, DC); UK Cabinet Office (2008) The national security strategy of the United Kingdom: security in an interdependent world; UK Government (2010) Securing Britain in an age of uncertainty: the strategic defence and security review). There was and still remains much defiance and mistrust from traditional actors in the climate change debate towards the defence and security community. Even after the subject was discussed within the UN (UN Secretary-General’s report on “Climate change and its possible security implications” (A/64/350), prepared in response to the request of member States, in UN General Assembly (UNGA) resolution 63/281 (2009)) and the European Union (2008 Paper from the High Representative and the European Commission to the European Council on climate change and international security (S133/08)), under the broad topic of the links between climate change and international security, the path for action and the possible role of Defence is not yet agreed upon. Climate negotiations are progressing slower than ever while the negative effects of climate change are already being felt around the world.

In the meantime, the Defence community has been learning to integrate environmental constraints into its activities for some time; many initiatives are now taken at various levels (national and international) to lessen the defence-related activities’ impact on the environment, including its GHG (greenhouse gases) emissions. The Defense community should identify the risks posed by climate change to global and national security and how they impact Defence planning and missions; and ensure that Defence activities contribute as little as possible to the causes of climate change. In order to be sustainable, there needs to be an integration of mitigation and adaptation.

The goal of this chapter is to illustrate that climate change is already a fundamental determinant of our future and that, as such, it cannot be ignored by defence planners. By learning from the experience of the French Defence regarding sustainable development, we are able to better define potential adaptations to climate change.

After a brief definition of the French context regarding adaptation, we will first describe the French Defence approach regarding Sustainable Development and its current evolution. We will then discuss the need for a strategic approach to climate change adaptation for Defence and how it can build on the Sustainable Development policy. Finally, we will try to draw lessons and define next steps to tackle this complex issue.

A. Brassel-Day, B. Reysset, R. Nyer

Chapter 18. Urban Sustainability and Poverty: Can Microfinance Make a Difference?

Abstract

Microfinance is perceived as a way to provide the impoverished with access to credit, but does it provide a sustainable solution to the ever growing problem of urban poverty? Microfinance has found new visibility with the experience of the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh. The Grameen Bank is considered a model of microfinancial success leading to a Nobel Peace Prize in 2006. But microfinance has had a mix of success and failures and despite being present in every region of the world; it is poorly documented and understood. Scholars who want to get an informed understanding of the microfinance world will find themselves confronted with an abundance of anecdotal information, giving the misleading impression of a wealth of data but little in the form scientific data. For example, empowerment of women is the best documented aspect of microfinance. However important woman empowerment may be, it does not capture the totality of the impact of microfinance on poverty or on the economy. Microfinance is a unique instrument to fight poverty and the difference it has made is beyond debate, but is reliance on microfinance sustainable for developing countries?

B. Morel, E. Linkov, P. Morel

Chapter 19. Infrastructure Modeling: Status and Applications

Abstract

Protecting the Nation’s infrastructure from intentional attacks and natural disasters, including extreme weather events and climate change, is a major national security concern that has only become more critical since the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001 (This chapter focuses on the work performed at LANL concerning the protection of the critical infrastructures of the United States (the ‘Nation’); however the modeling concepts discussed here are generally applicable). Understanding potential weaknesses of infrastructure assets and how interdependencies across critical infrastructure affect their behavior is essential to predicting and mitigating single and cascading failures, as well as to planning for response and recovery and future infrastructure development. Modeling and simulation (M&S) is an indispensable part of characterizing this complex system of systems and anticipating its response to disruptions. With the advent of more sophisticated infrastructure M&S capabilities, the possible applications have expanded to include the security challenges faced by the U.S. military, which relies on sustainable energy resources and needs to address environmental challenges and husband its water resources. Another key area where infrastructure modeling can play a critical role is in addressing global warming concerns given changes in available technology, evolution of the energy mix toward renewable resources, and many other infrastructure-related factors.

Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), a U.S. Department of Energy research laboratory tasked with national and energy security concerns, is at the forefront in the development of sophisticated infrastructure M&S capabilities and provides timely analysis of natural and manmade challenges to the infrastructure. This chapter explores the use of infrastructure models by presenting a representative cross- section of the models developed at LANL and some of the analyses completed with them.

R. J. Leclaire, D. Pasqualini, J. S. Dreicer, G. L. Toole, N. M. Urban, R. W. Bent, T. N. Mcpherson, N. W. Hengartner

Titel: Sustainable Cities and Military Installations
herausgegeben von: Igor Linkov
Verlag: Springer Netherlands
Electronic ISBN: 978-94-007-7161-1
Print ISBN: 978-94-007-7160-4
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7161-1