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2018 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

3. The Concept of ‘World Heritage’ and Its Application in the Pacific

verfasst von : Stephanie Clair Price

Erschienen in: World Heritage Conservation in the Pacific

Verlag: Springer Singapore

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Abstract

This chapter examines the concept of ‘World Heritage’ and assesses the extent to which Pacific Island heritage ‘fits’ within the World Heritage Convention regime. After briefly explaining the history of the Convention, the chapter explores the World Heritage Committee’s changing interpretation of the notion of ‘outstanding universal value’. It demonstrates that there is now considerable scope for Pacific Island heritage to meet the requirements for World Heritage listing. However, the implications of listing a site that possesses markedly different global and local significance warrant careful consideration, particularly the challenges this may present for conservation.

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Vorheriges Kapitel The Pacific Context

Nächstes Kapitel The Protection of Pacific Island Heritage Through the World Heritage Convention Regime

See Sect. 1.6.1 for discussion of the use of the term ‘World Heritage’ in this book.

Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, opened for signature 16 November 1972, 1037 UNTS 151 (entered into force 17 December 1975) (‘World Heritage Convention’) preamble para 6.

Ibid., art 1.

Ibid., art 2.

For detailed discussion of the history of the World Heritage Convention, see, for example, Sarah M Titchen, On the Construction of Outstanding Universal Value: UNESCO’s World Heritage Convention (Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 1972) and the Identification and Assessment of Cultural Places for Inclusion in the World Heritage List (PhD Thesis, The Australian National University, 1995) chs 2, 3; Francesco Francioni (ed), The 1972 World Heritage Convention: A Commentary (Oxford University Press, 2008).

Ben Boer and Graeme Wiffen, Heritage Law in Australia (Oxford University Press, 2006) 9. For discussion of the history of such laws, see generally Francesco Francioni, ‘A Dynamic Evolution of Concept and Scope: From Cultural Property to Cultural Heritage’ in Yusuf A Abdulqawi (ed), Standard-Setting in UNESCO Volume 1: Normative Action in Education, Science and Culture (Martinus Nijoff and UNESCO Publishing, 2007) 221; David Lowenthal, ‘Natural and Cultural Heritage’ (2005) 11(1) International Journal of Heritage Studies 81; Craig Forrest, International Law and the Protection of Cultural Heritage (Routledge, 2011).

Seong-Yong Park, On Intangible Heritage Safeguarding Governance: An Asia-Pacific Context (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2013) 9.

Lyndel V Prott and P J O’Keefe, Law and the Cultural Heritage – Volume I (Professional Books, 1984) 8.

See, for example, Forrest, above n 6, xxi.

Prott and O’Keefe, above n 8, 34.

Forrest, above n 6, 56.

Francioni, above n 6, 223. For detailed discussion of the history of war and cultural heritage, see Forrest, above n 6, ch 3.

Guido Carducci, ‘The 1972 World Heritage Convention in the Framework of other UNESCO Conventions on Cultural Heritage’ in Francesco Francioni (ed), The 1972 World Heritage Convention: A Commentary (Oxford University Press, 2008) 363, 365.

Forrest, above n 6, 78.

Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property during Armed Conflict , opened for signature 14 May 1954, 249 UNTS 240 (entered into force 7 August 1956) arts 2–3.

Article 1.

Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property, opened for signature 14 November 1970, 823 UNTS 231 (entered into force 24 April 1972).

Article 1.

Article 2.

Prott and O’Keefe, above n 8, 8.

See, for example, Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (1962); Paul Ehrlich, The Population Bomb (Sierra Club and Ballantine Books, 1968); Donella H Meadows et al, Limits to Growth (Universe Books, 1972).

Francesco Francioni, ‘The Preamble’ in Francesco Francioni (ed), The 1972 World Heritage Convention: A Commentary (Oxford University Press, 2008) 11, 12; Lowenthal, above n 6, 84.

Douglas Pocock, ‘Some Reflections on World Heritage’ (1997) 29(3) Area 260, 260.

Report of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, UN Doc A/CONF.48/14/Rev.1 (5–16 June 1972) ch 1 (Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment) (‘Stockholm Declaration’).

Edith Brown Weiss, Daniel B Magraw and Paul C Szasz, International Environmental Law: Basic Instruments and References (Transnational Publishers, 1992) 171.

International Instruments for the Protection of Monuments, Groups of Buildings and Sites, UN Doc SHC/MD/17 (30 June 1971) annex II.

Barbara J Lausche, Weaving a Web of Environmental Law: Contributions of the IUCN Environmental Law Programme (IUCN/ICEL, 2008) 89.

Francioni, above n 22, 14.

Titchen, above n 5, 52, 62; Francesco Bandarin, World Heritage: Challenges for the Millennium (UNESCO, 2007) 28; Catherine Redgwell, ‘Article 2 Definition of Natural Heritage’ in Francesco Francioni (ed), The 1972 World Heritage Convention: A Commentary (Oxford University Press, 2008) 63, 64.

Ralph O Slatyer, ‘The Origin and Development of the World Heritage Convention’ (1984) Monumentum 3, 4.

Records of the General Conference, 16th sess, UNESCO Res 2.313 (1970) 35 (Intergovernmental Programme on Man and the Biosphere).

Stockholm Declaration, UN Doc A/CONF.48/14/Rev.1, art 1.

Titchen, above n 5, 40.

Forrest, above n 6, xxi.

Redgwell, above n 29, 64.

Francioni, above n 12, 229.

Lyndel V Prott and Patrick J O’Keefe, ‘Cultural Heritage’ or ‘Cultural Property’ (1992) 1(2) International Journal of Cultural Property 307, 310.

Janet Blake, ‘On Defining the Cultural Heritage’ (2000) 49(1) The International and Comparative Law Quarterly 61, 67.

Redgwell, above n 29, 64.

Blake, above n 38, 67; Francioni, above n 12, 229.

Stockholm Declaration, UN Doc A/CONF.48/14/Rev.1, art 1.

See, for example, Convention on Biological Diversity , opened for signature 5 June 1992, 1760 UNTS 79 (entered into force 29 December 1993) art 22.

Francioni, above n 12, 229. For example, Aplin contends that ‘heritage’ implies a gift for future generations and benefits for the community: Graeme Aplin, Heritage: Identification, Conservation and Management (Oxford University Press, 2002) 13. Lowenthal defines ‘heritage’ as ‘everything we suppose has been handed down to us from the past’: Lowenthal, above n 6, 81.

Graeme Davison, ‘The Meanings of “Heritage”’ in Graeme Davison and Chris McConville (eds), A Heritage Handbook (Allen and Unwin, 1991) 1, 1.

Josephine Suzanne Gillespie, Monumental Challenges: Local Perspectives on World Heritage Landscape Regulation at Angkor Archaeological Park, Cambodia (PhD Thesis, The University of Sydney, 2010) 67.

See, for example, Aplin, above n 43, ch 1; Boer and Wiffen, above n 6, ch 1; Davison, above n 44; Lowenthal, above n 6; Maurice Evans, Principles of Environmental Heritage (Prospect Media, 2000) ch 2; Rodney Harrison, Heritage: Critical Approaches (Routledge, 2013) chs 2, 3.

Boer and Wiffen, above n 6, 7.

World Commission on Culture and Development, Our Creative Diversity (2nd ed, 1996) quoted in Ian Strasser ‘Putting Reform into Action: Thirty Years of the World Heritage Convention: How to Reform a Convention without Changing its Regulations’ (2002) 11(2) International Journal of Cultural Property 215, 224.

Ibid.

Intangible cultural heritage is now covered by the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage , opened for signature 17 October 2003, 2368 UNTS 3 (entered into force 20 April 2006). See UNESCO, Intangible Cultural Heritage in the Pacific (UNESCO, 2011) for discussion of the application of this Convention in the Pacific.

World Heritage Convention preamble para 6, arts 1–2.

Forrest, above n 6, 7–8; Ben Boer and Stefan Gruber, ‘Heritage Discourses’ in Brad Jessup and Kim Rubenstein (eds), Environmental Discourses in Public and International Law (Cambridge University Press, 2012) 375, 383.

World Heritage Convention art 12. A site may have OUV but not be included on the World Heritage List, for example, if the relevant State party has not nominated it. However, because the focus of the World Heritage Convention regime is on sites inscribed on the World Heritage List, in practice the Committee’s decision as to whether a site has OUV (and therefore whether it should be listed) is central to the operation of the regime.

For detailed analysis of the origins of the term ‘outstanding universal value’, see Titchen, above n 5.

Sarah M Titchen, ‘On the Construction of “Outstanding Universal Value”: Some Comments on the Implementation of the 1972 UNESCO World Heritage Convention’ (1996) 1 Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites 235, 236.

World Heritage Convention art 11(2).

Ibid., art 11(5).

Lasse Steiner and Bruno S Frey, ‘Correcting the Imbalance of the World Heritage List: Did the UNESCO Strategy Work?’ (2012) 3 Journal of International Organisation Studies 25, 27.

UNESCO, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, UN Doc WHC.15/01 (8 July 2015) (‘Operational Guidelines 2016’) para 49.

Ibid., paras 77–78.

Ibid., paras 79–95.

Ibid., paras 96–115.

See, for example, UNESCO, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, UN Doc CC-77/CONF.008 (30 July 1977) para 5(ii); UNESCO, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, UN Doc WHC/2 (1978) 7, 10.

WHC Res 6 EXT.COM 5.1, 6th extraordinary WHC sess, UN Doc WHC-03/6 EXT.COM/8 (27 May 2003) 5.

Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, para 46.

The three Advisory Bodies are the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM), the International Council of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS), and the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN). See Table 1.1 for description of their roles.

ICOMOS and ICCROM are the Advisory Bodies for cultural sites. IUCN is the Advisory Body for natural sites: Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, paras 32–37.

UNESCO et al, Managing Cultural World Heritage, World Heritage Resource Manual (UNESCO, 2013).

UNESCO et al, Managing Natural World Heritage, World Heritage Resource Manual (UNESCO, 2012).

See, for example, Reports of the Advisory Bodies, WHC 39th sess, UN Doc WHC-15/39.COM/5B (15 May 2015) para 23; Progress Report on the Reflection on Processes for Mixed Nominations, WHC 39th sess, UN Doc WHC-15/39.COM/9B (15 May 2015).

Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, para 132(3).

Ibid., para 96.

See, for example, UNESCO et al, above n 69, 37.

See, for example, UNESCO et al, above n 68, 2.

Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, para 87.

Ibid., para 88. See also paras 89–95.

Ibid., para 79.

Ibid., para 80. See also paras 81–86.

For comprehensive analysis of the criteria for cultural heritage sites, see, for example, Titchen, above n 5, in particular chs 5, 8; Jukka Jokilehto, What is OUV? Defining the Outstanding Universal Value of Cultural World Heritage Properties (ICOMOS, 2008), in particular chs 3–4.

Report of the World Heritage Committee, WHC 1st sess, UN Doc CC-77/CONF.001/9 (17 October 1977) para 19.

Gillespie, above n 45, 67.

Report of the World Heritage Committee, WHC 1st sess, UN Doc CC-77/CONF.001/9 (17 October 1977) para 19.

UNESCO, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, UN Doc WHC/2 (1978) 7, 10.

Sophia Labadi, ‘A Review of the Global Strategy for a Balanced, Representative and Credible World Heritage List 1994–2004’ (2005) 7(2) Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites 89, 89–90.

UNESCO, World Heritage: Challenges for the Millennium (UNESCO, 2007) 39.

WHC Res CONF 003 X.10, WHC 18th sess, UN Doc WHC-94/CONF.003/16 (31 January 1995) 41–44. See Sect. 1.3 for discussion of the Global Strategy.

Abdulqawi A Yusuf, ‘Article 1 Definition of Cultural Heritage’ in Francesco Francioni (ed), The 1972 World Heritage Convention: A Commentary (Oxford University Press, 2008) 23, 31–40.

Mechtild Rössler, ‘Managing World Heritage Cultural Landscapes and Sacred Sites’ in Eléonore de Merode, Rieks Smeets and Carol Westrik (eds), Linking Universal and Local Values: Managing a Sustainable Future for World Heritage, World Heritage Papers 13 (UNESCO, 2004) 45, 45; Nora Mitchell, Mechtild Rössler and Pierre-Marie Tricaud, World Heritage Cultural Landscapes: A Handbook for Conservation and Management, World Heritage Papers 26 (UNESCO, 2009) 3.

For discussion of the recognition of cultural landscapes under the World Heritage Convention regime in the Asia Pacific context, see, for example, Ken Taylor and Kirsty Altenburg, ‘Cultural Landscapes in Asia-Pacific: Potential for Filling World Heritage Gaps’ (2006) 12(3) International Journal of Heritage Studies 267; Natsuko Akagawa and Tiamsoon Sirisrisak, ‘Cultural Landscapes in Asia and the Pacific: Implications of the World Heritage Convention’ (2008) 14(2) International Journal of Heritage Studies 176.

See, for example, UNESCO, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, UN Doc WHC/2/Revised (December 1988) para 36(a) (ii)–(iii).

Titchen, above n 5, 209.

WHC Res CONF 003 XIV.3, WHC 18th sess, UN Doc WHC-94/CONF.003/16 (31 January 1995) 64–68.

Report on the Expert Meeting on the ‘Global Strategy’ and Thematic Studies for a Representative World Heritage List, WHC 18th sess, UN Doc WHC-94/CONF.003/INF.6 (13 October 1994) 4.

Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, para 77(iii), (vi).

Ibid., para 77(v).

Ibid., para 47, annex 3.

Nara Document on Authenticity (1994); Operational Guidelines 2016, UN Doc WHC.16/01, para 79, annex 4.

For history of the Nara Document, see, for example, Christina Cameron and Nobuko Inaba, ‘The Making of the Nara Document on Authenticity’ (2015) 46(4) APT Bulletin 30.

Nara Document on Authenticity (1994) para 11.

100

Ibid.

101

Ibid., para 13.

102

Naomi Deegan, ‘The Local-Global Nexus in the Politics of World Heritage: Space for Community Development?’ in Marie-Theres Albert, Marielle Richon, Marie José Viñals and Andrea Witcomb (eds), Community Development through World Heritage, World Heritage Papers 31 (UNESCO, 2012) 77, 79. For detailed analysis of the changing concept of authenticity, see, Christina Cameron, ‘From Warsaw to Mostar: The World Heritage Committee and Authenticity’ (2008) 39(2/3) APT Bulletin 19.

103

For analysis of the development of the criteria for natural sites, see Redgwell, above n 29; Titchen, above n 5, ch 5.

104

Redgwell, above n 29, 67.

105

Ibid., 75.

106

Anita Smith, ‘World Heritage and Outstanding Universal Value in the Pacific Islands’ (2015) 21(2) International Journal of Heritage Studies 177.

107

In addition to Chief Roi Mata’s Domain, in support of her argument, Smith refers to the listing of Papahānaumokuākea, in Hawaii, as a mixed site, and two sites being considered for nomination: the ‘Yapese Stone Money’ site (a proposed transnational serial site from Palau and Yap in the Federated Sites of Micronesia) and the Sacred Site of Taputapuatea/Te Po and the Opoa Valley (in French Polynesia).

108

WHC Res 32 COM 8B.27, WHC 32nd sess, UN Doc WHC-08/32.COM/24Rev (31 March 2009) 170.

109

UNESCO, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, UN Doc WHC.08/01 (January 2008) (‘Operational Guidelines 2008’). For discussion of the heritage values of the site, see, for example, Meredith Wilson, Chris Ballard and Douglas Kalotiti, ‘Chief Roi Mata’s Domain: Challenges for a World Heritage Property in Vanuatu’ (2011) 23(2) Historic Environment 5.

110

Republic of Vanuatu, Chief Roi Mata’s Domain – Nomination by the Republic of Vanuatu for Inscription on the World Heritage List (2007); WHC Res 32 COM 8B.27, WHC 32nd sess, UN Doc WHC-08/32.COM/24Rev (31 March 2009) 170 para 3.

111

UNESCO, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, UN Doc WHC/2/Revised (27 March 1992) para 24(a) (iii) (‘Operational Guidelines 1992’).

112

WHC Res CONF 003 XIV.3, WHC 18th sess, UN Doc WHC-94/CONF.003/16 (31 January 1995) 64–68. See Operational Guidelines 2008, UN Doc WHC.08/01, para 77(iii).

113

Smith, above n 106, 182.

114

WHC Res 40 COM 8B.22, WHC 40th sess, UN Doc WHC/16/40.COM/19 (15 November 2016) 217.

115

ICOMOS, Evaluations of Nominations of Cultural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List, WHC 40th sess, UN Doc WHC/16/40.COM/INF.8B1 (July 2016) 103 (Nan Madol, Federated States of Micronesia, Advisory Body Evaluation 1503) 106.

116

Ibid.

117

Government of Papua New Guinea, Kuk Early Agricultural Site Cultural Landscape – A Nomination for Consideration as World Heritage Site (2007).

118

WHC Res 32 COM 8B.26, WHC 32nd sess, UN Doc WHC-08/32.COM/24Rev (31 March 2009) 168; Operational Guidelines 2008, UN Doc WHC.08/01, para 77(iii)–(iv). For discussion of the heritage values of the site, see, for example, John Denham, Tim Muke and Vagi Genorupa, ‘Nominating and Managing a World Heritage Site in the Highlands of Papua New Guinea’ (2007) 39(3) World Archaeology 324, 331.

119

Operational Guidelines 1992, UN Doc WHC/2/Revised, para 24(a) (iv).

120

WHC Res CONF 003 XIV.3, WHC 18th sess, UN Doc WHC-94/CONF.003/16 (31 January 1995) 64–68. See Operational Guidelines 2008, UN Doc WHC.08/01, para 77(iv).

121

Smith, above n 106, 181.

122

WHC Res 37 COM 8B.25, WHC 37th sess, UN Doc WHC-13/37.COM/20 (5 July 2013) 186, 186 para 3. For discussion of the heritage values of the site, see, for example, David Harrison, ‘Levuka, Fiji: Contested Heritage?’ (2004) 7(4) Current Issues in Tourism 346.

123

WHC Res 34 COM 8B.20, WHC 34th sess, UN Doc WHC-10/34.COM/20 (3 September 2010) 206, 207 para 3. For discussion of the heritage values of the site, see, for example, Steve Brown, ‘Poetics and Politics: Bikini Atoll and World Heritage Listing’ in Sue O’Connor, Denis Byrne and Sally Brockwell (eds), Transcending the Culture-Nature Divide in Cultural Heritage: Views from the Asia-Pacific Region (ANU E Press, 2012) 35.

124

WHC Res 36 COM 8B.12, WHC 36th sess, UN Doc WHC-12/36.COM/19 (June–July 2012) 165, 165 para 3. For discussion of the heritage values of the site, see, for example, Christian Reepmeyer et al, ‘Selecting Cultural Sites for the UNESCO World Heritage List: Recent Work in the Rock Islands – Southern Lagoon Area, Republic of Palau’ in Jolie Liston, Geoffrey Clark and Dwight Alexander (eds), Pacific Island Heritage: Archaeology, Identity and Community (ANU E Press, 2011) 85.

125

Presentation of the World Heritage Programme for the Pacific, WHC 31st sess, UN Doc WHC-07/31.COM/11C (10 May 2007) annex I (Appeal to the World Heritage Committee from the Pacific Island State Parties) para 11. The Pacific Appeal is discussed in Sect. 1.5.

126

WHC Res CONF 203 VIII.A.1, WHC 22nd sess, UN Doc WHC-98/CONF/203/18 (29 January 1999) 25.

127

Adoption of Retrospective Statements of Outstanding Universal Value, WHC 36th sess, UN Doc WHC-12/36.COM/8E (15 June 2012) 55–6 (East Rennell, Solomon Islands); WHC Res 36 COM 8E, WHC 36th sess, UN Doc WHC-12/36.COM/19 (June–July 2012) 225.

128

WHC Res 34 COM 8B.2, WHC 34th sess, UN Doc WHC-10/34.COM/20 (3 September 2010) 165.

129

Nominations to the World Heritage List, WHC 35th sess, UN Doc WHC-11/35.COM/8B.Add (27 May 2011) 10–11 (Statement of Outstanding Universal Value: Phoenix Islands Protected Area, Kiribati); WHC Res 35 COM 8B.60, WHC 35th sess, UN Doc WHC-11/35.COM/20 (7 July 2011) 249.

130

WHC Res 36 COM 8B.12, WHC 36th sess, UN Doc WHC-12/36.COM/19 (June–July 2012) 165, 165 para 3.

131

IUCN, The World Heritage List: Future Priorities for a Credible and Complete List of Natural and Mixed Sites (IUCN, 2004) 3.

132

See, for example, Jim Thorsell and Todd Sigaty, A Global Overview of Forest Protected Areas on the World Heritage List (IUCN, 1997) 21; Jim Thorsell, Renée Ferster and Todd Sigarty, A Global Overview of Wetland and Marine Protected Areas on the World Heritage List (IUCN, 1997) 21; Tim Wong et al (eds), Proceedings of the Asia-Pacific Forum on Karst Ecosystems and World Heritage (Gunung Mulu National Park World Heritage Area, Malaysia, 26–30 May 2001) 45.

133

Helen Hazen and Peter Anthamatten, ‘Unnatural Selection: An Analysis of the Ecological Representativeness of Natural World Heritage Sites’ (2007) 59(2) The Professional Geographer 256, 256.

134

Ibid., 264.

135

For discussion of this issue more generally, see David Harrison, ‘Introduction: Contested narratives in the domain of World Heritage’ (2004) 7:4–5 Current Issues in Tourism 281. Harrison notes that ‘what is defined as heritage is linked to power: the power to impose a view of the world, especially of the past, on others’ (at 287).

136

Smith, above n 106, 181.

137

WHC Res 34 COM 8B.20, WHC 34th sess, UN Doc WHC-10/34.COM/20 (3 September 2010) 206.

138

Brown, above n 123, 36.

139

Steve Brown, ‘Archaeology of Brutal Encounter: Heritage and Bomb Testing on Bikini Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands’ (2013) 48 Archaeology in Oceania 26, 36.

140

ICOMOS, Evaluations of Nominations of Cultural and Mixed Properties to the World Heritage List, WHC 37th sess, UN Doc WHC-13/37.COM/INF.8B1 (June 2013) 87 (Levuka Historical Port Town, Fiji, Advisory Body Evaluation 1399) 95.

141

David Fisher, The Socio-Economic Consequences of Tourism in Levuka, Fiji (PhD Thesis, Lincoln University, 2000) 134–135.

142

Harrison, above n 122, 365.

143

Chris Ballard and Meredith Wilson, ‘Unseen Monuments: Managing Melanesian Cultural Landscapes’ in Ken Taylor and Jane L Lennon (eds), Managing Cultural Landscapes (Routledge, 2012) 130, 134.

144

For example, a site referred to as ‘Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Solomon Islands’ (which is on Solomon Islands’ Tentative List) is proposed as a natural World Heritage site.

145

Eric L Edroma, ‘Linking Universal and Local Values for the Sustainable Management of World Heritage Sites’ in Eléonore de Merode, Rieks Smeets and Carol Westrik (eds), Linking Universal and Local Values: Managing a Sustainable Future for World Heritage (UNESCO, 2004) 36, 40.

Akagawa, Natsuko and Tiamsoon Sirisrisak, ‘Cultural Landscapes in Asia and the Pacific: Implications of the World Heritage Convention’ (2008) 14(2) International Journal of Heritage Studies 176

Aplin, Graeme, Heritage: Identification, Conservation and Management (Oxford University Press, 2002)

Ballard, Chris and Meredith Wilson, ‘Unseen Monuments: Managing Melanesian Cultural Landscapes’ in Ken Taylor and Jane L Lennon (eds), Managing Cultural Landscapes (Routledge, 2012) 130

Bandarin, Francesco, World Heritage: Challenges for the Millennium (UNESCO, 2007)

Blake, Janet, ‘On Defining the Cultural Heritage’ (2000) 49(1) The International and Comparative Law Quarterly 61

Boer, Ben and Stefan Gruber, ‘Heritage Discourses’ in Brad Jessup and Kim Rubenstein (eds), Environmental Discourses in Public and International Law (Cambridge University Press, 2012) 375

Boer, Ben and Graeme Wiffen, Heritage Law in Australia (Oxford University Press, 2006)

Brown, Steve, ‘Poetics and Politics: Bikini Atoll and World Heritage Listing’ in Sue O’Connor, Byrne, Denis and Sally Brockwell (eds), Transcending the Culture-Nature Divide in Cultural Heritage: Views from the Asia-Pacific Region (ANU E Press, 2012) 35

Brown, Steve, ‘Archaeology of Brutal Encounter: Heritage and Bomb Testing on Bikini Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands’ (2013) 48 Archaeology in Oceania 26

Cameron, Christina, ‘From Warsaw to Mostar: The World Heritage Committee and Authenticity’ (2008) 39(2/3) APT Bulletin 19

Cameron, Christina and Nobuko Inaba, ‘The Making of the Nara Document on Authenticity’ (2015) 46(4) APT Bulletin 30

Carducci, Guido, ‘The 1972 World Heritage Convention in the Framework of other UNESCO Conventions on Cultural Heritage’ in Francesco Francioni (ed), The 1972 World Heritage Convention: A Commentary (Oxford University Press, 2008) 363

Carson, Rachel, Silent Spring (1962)

Davison, Graeme, ‘The Meanings of ‘Heritage” in Graeme Davison and Chris McConville (eds), A Heritage Handbook (Allen and Unwin, 1991) 1

Deegan, Naomi, ‘The Local-Global Nexus in the Politics of World Heritage: Space for Community Development?’ in Marie-Theres Albert, Marielle Richon, Marie José Viñals and Andrea Witcomb (eds), Community Development through World Heritage, World Heritage Papers 31 (UNESCO, 2012) 77

Denham, John, Tim Muke and Vagi Genorupa, ‘Nominating and Managing a World Heritage Site in the Highlands of Papua New Guinea’ (2007) 39(3) World Archaeology 324

Edroma, Eric L, ‘Linking Universal and Local Values for the Sustainable Management of World Heritage Sites’ in Eléonore de Merode, Rieks Smeets and Carol Westrik (eds), Linking Universal and Local Values: Managing a Sustainable Future for World Heritage (UNESCO, 2004) 36

Ehrlich, Paul, The Population Bomb (Sierra Club and Ballantine Books, 1968)

Evans, Maurice, Principles of Environmental Heritage (Prospect Media, 2000)

Fisher, David, The Socio-Economic Consequences of Tourism in Levuka, Fiji (PhD Thesis, Lincoln University, 2000)

Forrest, Craig, International Law and the Protection of Cultural Heritage (Routledge, 2011)

Francioni, Francesco, ‘A Dynamic Evolution of Concept and Scope: From Cultural Property to Cultural Heritage’ in Yusuf A Abdulqawi (ed), Standard-Setting in UNESCO Volume 1: Normative Action in Education, Science and Culture (Martinus Nijoff and UNESCO Publishing, 2007) 221

Francioni, Francesco (ed), The 1972 World Heritage Convention: A Commentary (Oxford University Press, 2008)

Francioni, Francesco, ‘The Preamble’ in Francesco Francioni (ed), The 1972 World Heritage Convention: A Commentary (Oxford University Press, 2008) 11

Government of Papua New Guinea, Kuk Early Agricultural Site Cultural Landscape – A Nomination for Consideration as World Heritage Site (2007)

Harrison, David, ‘Introduction: Contested narratives in the domain of World Heritage’ (2004) 7:4–5 Current Issues in Tourism 281

Harrison, David, ‘Levuka, Fiji: Contested Heritage’ (2004) 7:4–5 Current Issues in Tourism 346

Harrison, Rodney, Heritage: Critical Approaches (Routledge, 2013)

Hazen, Helen and Peter Anthamatten, ‘Unnatural Selection: An Analysis of the Ecological Representativeness of Natural World Heritage Sites’ (2007) 59(2) The Professional Geographer 256

IUCN, The World Heritage List: Future Priorities for a Credible and Complete List of Natural and Mixed Sites (IUCN, 2004)

Jokilehto, Jukka, What is OUV? Defining the Outstanding Universal Value of Cultural World Heritage Properties (ICOMOS, 2008)

Labadi, Sophia, ‘A Review of the Global Strategy for a Balanced, Representative and Credible World Heritage List 1994–2004’ (2005) 7(2) Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites 89

Lausche, Barbara J, Weaving a Web of Environmental Law: Contributions of the IUCN Environmental Law Programme (IUCN/ICEL, 2008)

Lowenthal, David, ‘Natural and Cultural Heritage’ (2005) 11(1) International Journal of Heritage Studies 81

Meadows, Donella H, Dennis L Meadows, Jørgen Randers and William W Behrens III, Limits to Growth (Universe Books, 1972)

Mitchell, Nora, Mechtild Rössler and Pierre-Marie Tricaud, World Heritage Cultural Landscapes: A Handbook for Conservation and Management, World Heritage Papers 26

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Titel: The Concept of ‘World Heritage’ and Its Application in the Pacific
verfasst von: Stephanie Clair Price
Verlag: Springer Singapore
Buch: World Heritage Conservation in the Pacific
Print ISBN: 978-981-13-0601-3

Electronic ISBN: 978-981-13-0602-0

Copyright-Jahr: 2018
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-0602-0_3

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