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2019 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

The International Legal Regime Applicable to the Mineral Resources of the Deep Seabed

verfasst von : Joanna Dingwall

Erschienen in: European Yearbook of International Economic Law 2018

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

Deep seabed mining beyond national jurisdiction may soon become a commercial reality. The deep seabed covers almost three-quarters of the entire surface area of our oceans, and it boasts an array of valuable mineral resources, including metals and rare earth elements. This article will evaluate the international legal regime, which applies to mining activities in this area. Acting under UNCLOS, the International Seabed Authority is responsible for regulating the deep seabed and granting mining contracts to allow investors to explore for and exploit deep seabed minerals. After assessing the types of mineral resources present in the deep seabed, this article will consider the key parameters of the UNCLOS deep seabed regime, including its licensing process and the extent to which actors are undertaking mining activities within the regime at present.

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Vorheriges Kapitel The EU Legal Framework on Trade in Timber and Timber Products: Recent Developments in the Implementation and Enforcement of the Timber Regulation

Nächstes Kapitel Natural Resources and the Arctic

The analysis in this article of the status of the deep seabed mining regime and the extent of mining activities is current as at 1 August 2018. All web links cited in this article are correct also as at that date.

Fouquet and Lacroix (2014), pp. 3–5; see also Shukman D, ‘Deep Sea Mining “Gold Rush” Moves Closer’, BBC News Online (London, 18 May 2013) <www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-22546875>; Minter A, ‘Seafloor Gold Rush Could Have Alarming Impact’, The Japan Times (Shanghai, 21 August 2016) <www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2016/08/21/commentary/world-commentary/seafloor-gold-rush-alarming-impact/#.W2sBQLllJaQ>.

ISA Press Release, ‘Commercialization of Marine Minerals in Deep Seabed Well Within Reach, International Seabed Authority Secretary-General States as He Introduces Annual Report’ (19 July 2016) SB/22/11.

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (adopted and opened for signature 10 December 1982, entered into force 16 November 1994) 1833 UNTS 3 (English language version at 397), art 156 (establishment of the ISA). The ISA is an autonomous international organisation headquartered in Jamaica.

United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea (“DOALOS”), ‘Chronological List of Ratifications of, Accessions and Successions to the Convention and the Related Agreements’ (3 April 2018) <www.un.org/Depts/los/reference_files/chronological_lists_of_ratifications.htm>.

Churchill and Lowe (1999), p. 24; Boyle and Chinkin (2007), p. 380; Noyes (2014), pp. 52–56.

UNCLOS, art 1(1): ‘“Area” means the sea-bed and ocean floor and subsoil thereof, beyond the limits of national jurisdiction’. Unless otherwise indicated, references in this article to the deep seabed and the Area both refer to the “Area” as defined in UNCLOS, art 1(1).

UNCLOS, arts 3 (territorial sea), 33 (contiguous zone), 57 (EEZ) and 76 (continental shelf).

UNCLOS, art 76(4)–(6).

UNCLOS, arts 2(2), 56(1)(a), 77(1)–(2) and 81.

UNCLOS, art 136.

UNCLOS, arts 153, 157(1) and see also Annex III; the definition of deep seabed resources will be discussed in this article below in Sect. 2.1, while the ISA’s licensing regime will be assessed in Sect. 3.2.

Lodge (2014), p. 290.

Eakins BW and Sharman GF, ‘Volumes of the World’s Oceans from ETOPO1’ (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Geophysical Data Centre 2010) <www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/global/etopo1_ocean_volumes.html> (the surface area of the oceans is 361.9 million square kilometres).

See e.g., International Seabed Authority, ‘Marine Mineral Resources’ (2003) <www.isa.org.jm/files/documents/EN/Brochures/ENG6.pdf>; Hein J, ‘ISA Briefing Paper 02/12 – Prospects for Rare Earth Elements from Marine Minerals’ (May 2012) <www.isa.org.jm/files/documents/EN/Pubs/BP2.pdf>; Fouquet and Lacroix (2014), pp. 3–4.

UNCLOS, arts 3 (territorial sea), 33 (contiguous zone), 57 (EEZ) and 76 (continental shelf), 1(1) and Part XI (the Area).

Bederman (2002), p. 169.

UNCLOS, art 2(2); the territorial sea may extend up to a limit not exceeding 12 nm from a coastal State’s baselines (art 3).

The contiguous zone extends from the outer limit of the territorial sea up to a maximum of 24 nm from the coastal State’s baselines (UNCLOS, art 33(2)). Partially overlapping with the contiguous zone, the EEZ also extends from the outer edge of the territorial sea, but spans up to a maximum of 200 nm from the coastal State’s baselines (UNCLOS, arts 55, 57).

UNCLOS, art 56(1)(a).

UNCLOS, art 76(1); on the concept of ‘natural prolongation’, see also Symonds et al. (2000), pp. 27–29; McDorman (2015), pp. 185–186.

Pidwirny M, ‘Physiography of the Ocean Basins’ Fundamentals of Physical Geography (2nd edn, 2006) <www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/10p.html>.

UNCLOS, art 76(3).

UNCLOS, art 76(1), (10), 77(3).

UNCLOS, art 76(1). UNCLOS sets out a complex process for determining the outer edge of the continental margin in Article 76(4)–(7). Article 76(5) allows the line of fixed points establishing the outer limits of the ECS to extend up to whichever is further offshore of either: (1) 350 nm from the coastal State’s baselines; or (2) 100 nm from the 2500 metre isobath (a line connecting the depth of 2500 m).

UNCLOS, art 76(8); on the role of the CLCS, see Jensen (2014), p. 182. For analysis and critique of the ECS claim process and its impact on the establishment of defined boundaries for the Area, see Franckx (2010), p. 543.

UNCLOS, arts 77(1)–(2) and 81; see also art 82 (pursuant to which a portion of any coastal State revenues generated by exploitation of non-living ECS resources must be distributed equitably by the ISA).

Cf. UNCLOS, arts 56(1)(a) (EEZ) and 77(4) (continental shelf).

UNCLOS, art 77(4). For analysis of the scope of sedentary species for the purposes of this definition, see McDorman (2015), p. 186; Prescott (2000), p. 80.

See UNCLOS, art 133(a).

UNCLOS, art 133(a).

UNCLOS, art 133(b). For the purposes of this article, the terms mineral resources, resources and minerals will be referred to interchangeably to connote all non-living, solid, liquid or gaseous mineral resources found on or recovered from the deep seabed.

Consideration of this issue is beyond the scope of this article. For analysis, see e.g., De La Fayette (2009), p. 221; Matz-Lück (2010); Leary (2012), p. 375; Kirchner-Freis and Kirchner (2014); Marciniak (2017).

UNGA Res 69/292 (19 June 2015); see also Scovazzi (2015), p. 61. To that end, the General Assembly (“GA”) established a Preparatory Committee (“PrepCom”) to make recommendations on substantive elements of the draft treaty text. During 2016 and 2017, PrepCom held four sessions. In July 2017, at its fourth session, PrepCom adopted a report to the GA proposing elements to be considered in the development of a new treaty regulating marine biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction (also known as “BBNJ”). PrepCom recommended also that the GA should convene an intergovernmental conference to negotiate a treaty text regulating BBNJ; for an overview of the PrepCom’s work and relevant documents see DOALOS webpage <www.un.org/depts/los/biodiversity/prepcom.htm>. In accordance with PrepCom’s recommendations, the Intergovernmental Conference on an international legally binding instrument under UNCLOS on the conservation and sustainable use of BBNJ (the BBNJ Intergovernmental Conference) is due to hold its first session at the UN headquarters in New York in September 2018.

Plate tectonic theory explains that the continents moved apart through the process of seafloor spreading; The British Geographer, ‘Plate Tectonic Theory’ The British Geographer Blog <http://thebritishgeographer.weebly.com/plate-tectonic-theory.html>; see also Pinet (2003), p. 80.

Prescott (2000), pp. 77–79; ISA ‘Marine Mineral Resources’ (n 15), pp. 1–2; Schröder (2014), pp. 64–65.

As Prescott notes, ‘continental slopes may offer better hydrocarbon prospects than the rises as they receive more organic matter from the land (…). By comparison, the rises normally receive comparatively low amounts of terrestrial organic matter’; Prescott (2000), pp. 75–76. See also ISA ‘Marine Mineral Resources’ (n 15) p. 1.

For example, Nautilus Minerals has a contract with Papua New Guinea to commence sulphide mining activities. If Nautilus’s Solwara 1 Project proceeds, it is due to be the world’s deepest mining venture yet at depths of 1600 m.

Glover and Smith (2003), p. 229; ISA ‘Marine Mineral Resources’ (n 15) 2; although note that nodules can be found as deep as around 6500 m: Schröder (2014), p. 66.

Glover and Smith (2003), p. 229; Schröder (2014), pp. 68–69.

For example, Schröder cites a growth rate of ‘only about one to 3 millimetres per million years’ in respect of certain types of polymetallic nodules: Schröder (2010), p. 146; see also Schröder (2014), p. 68. Autun Purser, ecologist at the Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, perhaps sums up this slow process most vividly in his remark that such nodules are ‘half a millimetre thicker than when Napoleon or Julius Caesar was walking around’; Milliken G, ‘Mining For Smartphone Metals Could Kill Rare and Beautiful Deep Sea Creatures’ (Motherboard, 23 December 2016) 2 <https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/mining-for-smartphone-metals-could-kill-rare-and-beautiful-deep-sea-creatures>.

Schröder (2014), pp. 66–67.

As this area is within the national jurisdiction of the Cook Islands, it falls to the Cook Islands to regulate exploration and exploitation of the natural resources within it; on this, see also Sect. 2.1 above.

Schröder (2014), pp. 66–67.

Schröder (2014), p. 66.

ISA ‘Marine Mineral Resources’ (n 15) 2; Schröder (2010), p. 148; Schröder (2014), p. 82.

Glover and Smith (2003), pp. 231–232; Schröder (2010), p. 151; Schröder (2014), p. 91; one such occurrence of metalliferous mud lies 2000 m deep in the Red Sea.

Schröder (2010), p. 146; ISA ‘Marine Mineral Resources’ (n 15) p. 2.

Schröder (2010), p. 148; Schröder (2014), p. 87.

Glover and Smith (2003), p. 231; see also Schröder (2010), p. 148; Schröder (2014), p. 76; ISA, ‘Cobalt-Rich Crusts’ (March 2008) <www.isa.org.jm/files/documents/EN/Brochures/ENG9.pdf>.

Schröder (2014), pp. 74–75.

See, e.g., Tuerk (2014), p. 283 citing estimates that 97% of offshore hydrocarbons deposits are within the maritime zones of national jurisdiction.

See, e.g., Becker-Weinberg (2014), especially Ch 9 (concerning resources that lie between the continental shelf and the Area).

See discussion of this in Sect. 3.3 below.

See discussion at n 38 above and accompanying text.

On this ‘conundrum’, see, e.g., Shukman D, ‘Renewables’ Deep-sea Mining Conundrum’ BBC News Online (London, 11 April 2017) <www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-39347620>; Raworth S and Shukman D, ‘Deep Sea Mining’ (BBC1, News at 10, 11 April 2017); Carrington D, ‘Is Deep Sea Mining Vital for a Greener Future – Even if it Destroys Ecosystems?’ The Guardian (London, 4 June 2017) <www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/jun/04/is-deep-sea-mining-vital-for-greener-future-even-if-it-means-destroying-precious-ecosystems>.

US Department of the Interior and US Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries 2011 (2011) <http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/mcs/2011/mcs2011.pdf>.

Rowlatt J, ‘Rare Earths: Neither Rare, Nor Earths’ BBC News Online (London, 23 March 2014) <www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-26687605>.

WTO, China: Measures Related to the Exportation of Rare Earths, Tungsten, and Molybdenum – Report of the Panel (26 March 2014) WT/DS431/R and Add.1/WT/DS432/R and Add.1/WT/DS433/R and Add.1, adopted 29 August 2014; upheld by Appellate Body Reports: WTO, China: Measures Related to the Exportation of Rare Earths, Tungsten, and Molybdenum – Report of the Appellate Body (7 August 2014) WT/DS431/AB/R/WT/DS432/AB/R/WT/DS433/AB/R.

Rowlatt (n 58).

Houses of Parliament, Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology, ‘Deep-Sea Mining’ (POST note 508, September 2015) 2 <http://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/POST-PN-0508/POST-PN-0508.pdf>.

Coles (2014), pp. 8–10.

Hein et al. (2013), p. 51. See also Hein, ‘ISA Briefing’ (n 15) 1–2; Fouquet and Martel-Jantin (2014), p. 63 et seq.

In addition to the citations at n 63 directly above, see also ISA, ‘Cobalt-Rich Crusts’ (n 50) 2; Schröder (2014), pp. 74–76 (which notes in particular that ‘in the southern area of the PCZ, comparatively high elements of rare earth elements are found in crusts’).

Kato et al. (2011), pp. 535, 535. Kato note that REE-rich mud appears to be concentrated mainly in two regions: the eastern South Pacific and the central North Pacific (535).

Kato et al. (2011), p. 535.

Kato et al. (2011), p. 538.

Hein et al. (2015), p. 97. See also Neate R, ‘Seabed Mining Could Earn Cook Islands “Tens of Billions of Dollars”’ The Guardian (London, 5 August 2013) <www.theguardian.com/business/2013/aug/05/seabed-mining-cook-islands-billions>.

University of Tokyo, Graduate School of Engineering, ‘Discovery of Rare Earths Around Minami-Torishima’ (Research News, 2 May 2013) <www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/focus/en/articles/a_00145.html>.

Evans-Pritchard A, ‘Japan Breaks China’s Stranglehold on Rare Metals with Sea-Mud Bonanza’ The Telegraph (London, 24 March 2013) <www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/comment/ambroseevans_pritchard/9951299/Japan-breaks-Chinas-stranglehold-on-rare-metals-with-sea-mud-bonanza.html>.

Evans-Pritchard A (n 70).

Tropic Seamount is rich in crusts containing REEs and other elements, which may be attractive for use in green energy technology, such as tellurium: Shukman, ‘Renewables’ Deep-sea Mining Conundrum’ (n 56).

Kato et al. (2011), p. 538.

Hein, ‘ISA Briefing’ (n 15), p. 3; Kato et al. (2011), p. 535; Coles (2014), p. 8.

Murray and Renard (1891).

See, e.g., Mero (1965); UNGA First Committee (22nd Session) ‘Speech by Arvid Pardo’ (1 November 1967, 3 p.m.) UN Doc A/C.1/PV.1516, 2.

Higgins (1994), pp. 129–133; Koskenniemi and Lehto (1996), p. 537; Churchill and Lowe (1999), pp. 224–226.

For analysis of this, see Boyle and Chinkin (2007); see also Koskenniemi and Lehto (1996), pp. 536–552; Churchill and Lowe (1999), pp. 224–229.

Koskenniemi and Lehto (1996), p. 553.

Churchill and Lowe (1999), p. 231, fn 25 (this comment relates to the pioneer investor scheme within the regime which the UNCLOS III negotiations devised to appease existing deep seabed investors; however, this comment by Churchill and Lowe is equally applicable to the UNCLOS deep seabed mining regime as a whole).

Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 (adopted 28 July 1994, entered into force provisionally 16 November 1994 and definitively 28 July 1996) 1836 UNTS 3. For analysis of the 1994 Agreement and its impact, see Oxman (1994), p. 687; Brown (1995), p. 5 ff.; Sohn (1994), p. 696. See also commentary by Nordquist et al. (2002), pp. 54–68.

Koskenniemi and Lehto (1996), p. 549 (and see generally pp. 536–552). For further elaboration on the evolution of the regime see also Churchill and Lowe (1999), pp. 224–229; Brown (2001), Ch 2; Holmila (2005), p. 187; Noyes (2012), pp. 459–460; Tuerk (2014), pp. 280–282; Fritz (2015), pp. 450–452.

See, e.g., the Preamble to the 1994 Agreement, which notes the ‘political and economic changes’ which occurred in the period between the adoption of the UNCLOS text in 1982 and the conclusion of the 1994 Agreement, including the shift towards ‘market-orientated approaches’ within the international community.

1994 Agreement, art 2(1).

UNCLOS, arts 140(2), 145, 160(2) (f), 162(o), 165(2) (f), and Annex III, art 17; Annex to the 1994 Agreement, sections 1(1), (5) (f)–(g), (15). See also Harrison (2011a), pp. 122–123, 152 (for analysis of the ISA’s far-reaching powers to progressively develop the Convention’s deep seabed mining regime).

UNCLOS, art 136; the principle that the Area’s resources form the common heritage of mankind is protected from amendment (see UNCLOS, art 311(6)).

UNCLOS, art 137(1).

UNCLOS, art 140(1); see also arts 153, 157(1) and Annex III.

UNCLOS, arts 148, 152(2).

UNCLOS, art 140(2), see also art 160(2)(f)(i).

See, e.g., UNCLOS, arts 145, 147. For analysis of issues concerning environmental protection in deep seabed mining see Redgwell (2006); Wolfrum (2014); Scovazzi (2014), p. 181; Jaeckel (2015), p. 93.

UNCLOS, art 137(2); see also arts 153 and 157(1) and Annex to the 1994 Agreement, section 1(1). The ISA’s licensing process for deep seabed mineral exploration and exploitation will be explored in Sect. 3.2, directly below.

UNCLOS, arts 158(1), 159–162, 166.

UNCLOS, arts 163, 165; the Council elects members to the LTC based on qualifications relevant to deep seabed mining, including legal and technical expertise.

UNCLOS, art 170; Annex to the 1994 Agreement, section 2.

ISA, Regulations on Prospecting and Exploration for Polymetallic Nodules in the Area (adopted 13 July 2000) ISBA/6/A/18 (updated 25 July 2013) ISBA/19/C/17 (“Nodules Regulations”); ISA, Regulations on Prospecting and Exploration for Polymetallic Sulphides in the Area (adopted 7 May 2010) ISBA/16/A/12/Rev.1 (“Sulphides Regulations”); ISA, Regulations on Prospecting and Exploration for Cobalt-Rich Ferromanganese Crusts in the Area (adopted 27 July 2012) ISBA/18/A/11 (“Cobalt Regulations”).

See, e.g., ISA LTC ‘Recommendations for the Guidance of Contractors for the Assessment of the Possible Environmental Impacts arising from Exploration for Marine Minerals in the Area’ (1 March 2013) ISBA/19/LTC/8.

For a scientific assessment of some of the environmental concerns posed by deep seabed mining, see Sharma (2015), p. 204. For detailed legal consideration of the balance between commercial mineral exploitation and protection of the Area’s marine environment, see Jaeckel (2017); see also Gjerde (2012), p. 839.

Deep Sea Mining Campaign <www.deepseaminingoutofourdepth.org/>.

100

Greenpeace International, ‘Deep Sea Mining’ (Background, 20 March 2014) <www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/oceans/marine-reserves/deep-sea-mining/>. Greenpeace, alongside over 70 other NGOs, is part of the Deep Sea Conservation Coalition (an umbrella movement seeking to protect and preserve deep sea ecosystems): Deep Sea Conservation Coalition <www.savethehighseas.org/>.

101

Odunton NI, ISA Secretary-General ‘Statement to the Twenty-Third Meeting of the States Parties to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea’ (10 June 2013).

102

ISA LTC, ‘Draft Regulations on Exploitation of Mineral Resources in the Area’ (9 July 2018) ISBA/24/LTC/WP.1/Rev.1 (Draft Exploitation Regulations).

103

The ISA has been developing the Draft Exploitation Regulations by means of a process of collaboration with interested stakeholders, including States, State entities, private corporations, environmental groups and civil society. On the basis of stakeholder consultation, the LTC originally released an initial working draft of regulations and standard contract terms concerning mineral exploitation in the Area in July 2016; ISA LTC, ‘Report – Developing a Regulatory Framework for Mineral Exploitation in the Area’ (July 2016) <www.isa.org.jm/files/documents/EN/Regs/DraftExpl/Draft_ExplReg_SCT.pdf>. Since then, there have been two further iterations of the draft (in August 2017 and April 2018) before the release of the current draft in July 2018; see ISA Secretariat, ‘Draft Regulations on Exploitation of Mineral Resources in the Area’ (8 August 2017) ISBA/23/LTC/CRP.3* and ISA LTC, ‘Draft Regulations on Exploitation of Mineral Resources in the Area’ (30 April 2018) ISBA/24/LTC/WP.1.

104

These benefits are to be shared equitably, on a non-discriminatory basis, through a mechanism still to be devised by the ISA; UNCLOS, art 140(2). Although the ISA has yet to develop the rules applicable to the equitable sharing of profits derived from deep seabed mining, in formulating such rules, the ISA must take the interests and needs of developing States into particular consideration; UNCLOS, art 160(2)(f)(i).

105

UNCLOS, art 153(2)(b).

106

Nodules Regulations, reg 9(b); Sulphides Regulations, reg 9(b); Cobalt Regulations, reg 9(b).

107

Responsibility and Obligations of States Sponsoring Persons and Entities with Respect to Activities in the Area (Advisory Opinion of 1 February 2011) ITLOS Reports 2011, 10, para 77; see also UNCLOS, Annex III, art 4(3); and reg 11(1)–(2) of the Nodules, Sulphides and Cobalt Regulations.

108

UNCLOS, art 153(3), Annex III, art 3.

109

UNCLOS, arts 153(3), 165(2)(b) and Annex III, art 6; Annex to the 1994 Agreement, sections 1(6), 3(11).

110

UNCLOS, art 153(3) and Annex III, art 3(5); see also Annex to the 1994 Agreement, section 1(6)(a)(i).

111

See Nordquist et al. (2002), p. 297, et seq on the development and negotiation of the parallel system in the context of the drafting of UNCLOS, art 153.

112

UNCLOS, art 153(2).

113

Nordquist et al. (2002), p. 297.

114

UNCLOS, Annex III, art 8.

115

See UNCLOS, Annex III, art 8 and Annex to the 1994 Agreement, section 1(10).

116

UNCLOS, Annex III, art 8; see further Annex III, art 9. See also UNCLOS, Annex IV, which contained the Statute of the Enterprise (much of which has been modified de facto by the 1994 Agreement).

117

Section 2(1) of the Annex to the 1994 Agreement provides that ‘the Secretariat of the Authority shall perform the functions of the Enterprise until it begins to operate independently of the Secretariat’, while section 2(2) specifies the conditions that must be met for the Enterprise to come into operation. As Yet, the Enterprise has not become operational.

118

Annex to the 1994 Agreement, section 2(5).

119

UNCLOS, Annex III, art 9(4). In relation to sulphides and cobalt crusts exploration, the ISA modified the site banking system further, permitting an applicant seeking permission to explore for sulphides or cobalt-rich crusts to offer an equity interest in a joint venture arrangement to the Enterprise instead of submitting a reserved area: Sulphides Regulations, regs 16, 19; Cobalt Regulations, regs 16, 19.

120

See, e.g.: UNCLOS, art 153(4)–(5), 157, 160, 162, 165; Annex III, art 18; Annex to the 1994 Agreement, section 1(1). The wide regulatory and enforcement powers of the ISA are reflected also in the Mining Code; see, e.g., the standard clauses to mining contracts in the fourth annex of the Nodules, Sulphides and Cobalt Regulations, at sections 10, 14, 21.

121

ITLOS Advisory Opinion (n 107) para 74 (affirming that the ‘notion of “sponsorship” is a key element in the system for the exploration and exploitation of the resources in the Area’).

122

ITLOS Advisory Opinion (n 107) para 75; as the Chamber acknowledged, this end is also achieved by virtue of the ISA’s regulations, which apply to all contractors.

123

Karavias (2013), p. 124 (‘[t]he Standard Clauses [to the ISA contract], in turn, transpose the content of the [UNCLOS] provisions regarding activities in the Area and of the [ISA] Regulations into the contractual arrangement, thus providing a nexus between [UNCLOS] and the secondary law enacted by the ISA and the contract for exploration.’); see also Harrison (2011a), p. 123.

124

UNCLOS, art 139(2); see also UNCLOS, arts 138 and 153(4); and Annex III, art 4(4).

125

UNCLOS, Annex III, art 4(4).

126

ITLOS Advisory Opinion (n 107), para 110.

127

ITLOS Advisory Opinion (n 107), para 122; see further Freestone (2011), p. 755; Harrison (2011b), p. 517; Plakokefalos (2012), p. 134.

128

On the parameters of the deep seabed and the definition of mineral resources within it, see Sect. 2.1 above.

129

Sharma (2011), pp. 28–31; see also, e.g., Egan M, ‘Copper, Aluminium and Steel Collapse to Crisis Levels’ CNN Money (New York, 9 December 2015) <http://money.cnn.com/2015/12/09/investing/oil-prices-metals-crash-crisis-levels/>.

130

See, e.g., Latimer C, ‘Seabed Mining: Plunging into the Depths of a New Frontier’ Australian Mining (Australia, 10 August 2011) <www.australianmining.com.au/features/seabed-mining-plunging-into-the-depths-of-a-new-fr>; Shukman, ‘Deep Sea Mining “Gold Rush” Moves Closer’ (n 2); Goldenberg S, ‘Marine Mining: Underwater Gold Rush Sparks Fears of Ocean Catastrophe’ The Observer (London, 2 March 2014) <www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/mar/02/underwater-gold-rush-marine-mining-fears-ocean-threat>; Minter A (n 2).

131

For discussion of the CCZ, see n 42–44 and accompanying text.

132

ISA Council, ‘Decision of the Council relating to the procedures and criteria for the extension of an approved plan of work for exploration pursuant to section 1, paragraph 9, of the annex to the Agreement relating to the Implementation of Part XI of UNCLOS’ (24 July 2015) ISBA/21/C/19*.

133

ISA Press Release, ‘Seabed Council Puts Forward Two Candidates for Election of Secretary-General; Approves Six Exploration Contract Extensions; Begins LTC Election Debate’ (18 July 2016) SB/22/9; for the draft decisions by the Council to approve the extensions, see ISA Council ‘Draft Decisions’ (all dated 14 July 2016) ISBA/22/C/L.4–L.9.

134

ISA Council, ‘Decision of the Council relating to an application by the Government of India for extension of a contract for exploration for polymetallic nodules between the Government of India and the Authority’ (10 August 2017) ISBA/23/C/15.

135

See discussion in above at n 102–103 and accompanying text.

136

This contractor is Interoceanmetal Joint Organization (comprising Bulgaria, Cuba, the Czech Republic, Poland, Russia and Slovakia).

137

These four States are India, Poland, Russia and South Korea.

138

These eleven entities possess nine nationalities between them, with Chinese entities holding four contracts, French, German and Japanese entities holding two contracts each, and entities controlled by Brazil, the Cook Islands, Kiribati, Nauru and Russia holding one contract each.

139

Lodge (2002), p. 294.

140

Ibid.

141

ISA Press Release, ‘Commercialization of Marine Minerals’ (n 3); see also United Nations Environment Programme, ‘Wealth in the Oceans: Deep Sea Mining on the Horizon?’ (Global Environmental Alert Service, May 2014) available at <https://na.unep.net/geas/archive/pdfs/GEAS_May2014_DeepSeaMining.pdf>; Houses of Parliament, ‘Deep-Sea Mining’ (n 61).

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Titel: The International Legal Regime Applicable to the Mineral Resources of the Deep Seabed
verfasst von: Joanna Dingwall
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Buch: European Yearbook of International Economic Law 2018
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-97751-5

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-319-97752-2

Copyright-Jahr: 2019
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/8165_2018_11

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