Water Policies in MENA Countries

The Middle East and North Africa region is experiencing a widening gap between freshwater supply and demand caused by population and economic growth and climate change. This book addresses water scarcity issues in the MENA region and gives an overview of the current water policies in seven MENA countries: Algeria, Egypt Iran, Jordan, Oman, Saudi Arabia, and Tunisia. This book includes an introductory chapter and seven chapters showcasing water policies in each country. This introductory chapter gives a quantitative representation and description of current available water resources; water demand for industrial, domestic, and agricultural purposes; and water per capita decline over time. The seven chapters provide details on the main challenges faced in each of the countries in the water sector. The chapters address the laws governing water use in the three economic sectors, water supply, water pricing and cost recovery and irrigation efficiency, and technology adoption. The increase of supply from non-conventional resources such as desalination and reuse of treated wastewater is analyzed. The chapters end up discussing how the countries are adapting to climate change and the role of research and innovations.

Water scarcity is a reality in Algeria. However, this stark fact is sometimes misunderstood. High population growth coupled with industrialization calls for a sustainable water use pattern in industrial, agricultural, and domestic sectors. The problems caused by water scarcity imply important changes in the criteria and objectives of water policies. The major water issues in Algeria can be attributed to both policy implementation failure and a lack of on-the-ground application of regulations. For a better tomorrow, it is pressing to integrate policy frameworks with particular attention to efficient utilization, rationalization, and conservation. The proposed approach is illustrated in the paper by the case study of water policy analysis for Algeria.

This chapter presents the 2017 state of water in Egypt. It provides information on the corresponding balance of water resources and uses in Egypt in light of the water scarcity situation. It provides views on the implementation of the water-energy-food nexus approach in Egypt. It also addresses the challenges facing Egypt’s dependency on the transboundary water resource of the Nile, and the dependency of Egypt on the use of non-conventional water resources and reuse of agriculture drainage and wastewater. This chapter highlights the role of virtual water imports in achieving Egypt’s food security. It touches upon the urban water tariff system. It reflects on existing water policies and provides recommendations for water policies that would achieve quick wins in the future.

Iranians have traditionally been harnessing water resources ingeniously and efficiently throughout their rich history; however, over the last four decades, the rapid pace of development, demographic expansions, overurbanization, disintegrated large agricultural expansions, and perhaps most importantly climate change and variation have taken their toll on a barely stable water resources supply/demand chain. As such, the country is now facing a water deficit in general and moderate to severe scarcity in many of its water-related development and mainstream operations.

Jordan’s water resources are estimated at a long-term average value of 8191 MCM/year. Groundwater accounts for about 61% of water supply. Water scarcity threatens Jordan’s development. About 93.5% of the country receives less than 200 mm of rainfall, and only 0.7% of the country has annual precipitation of more than 500 mm. Drought-occurrence periods are one of the most serious factors affecting water supply. The quality of treated effluent allowed to be discharged into Wadies follows Jordanian Standards. Exploitation of the aquifers increases the salinity level. One of the main weak institutional performances in Jordan’s water sector is the overlapping responsibilities between the Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI), with Water Authority of Jordan (WAJ), and Jordan Rift Valley Authority (JRVA). Renewable water supply currently only meets about half of total water consumption. This is caused by unsustainable groundwater extraction, including thousands of illegal private wells. Despite the huge investments in the water sector programmed through the year 2025 the future food and water security is under threat unless the government strategy is fully implemented. The water deficit will grow from about 160 Mm³ in 2015 to 490 Mm³ by 2025. Without new water sources, only 90 m³ per capita per year will be available by 2025. The Disi water conveyance project and the Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal will help increase the supply, but will not be sufficient to satisfy long-term demand. A combination of reduced demand and rationing distribution programs for domestic uses as well as the re-use of wastewater flows for irrigated agriculture will likely help bridge the gap.

Oman is a country under severe water stress. Currently Oman produces around 1 Mm³/day of desalinated seawater for urban purposes to expand supply. This policy was partially imposed by the irregularity of rain and the concentration of the population on the coastal areas. Most of the conventional water resources are in the form of groundwater and are used in the agricultural sector. Abstractions from wells are subject to licenses. But licenses so far do not carry any limits. The result is a race for water with overabstractions in the coastal areas causing seawater intrusion and damage to the aquifers. The government is planning to introduce progressively water quotas to farmers and monitoring through smart meters and online system. Large volumes of tertiary treated wastewater are produced daily and are only partially reused for landscaping. There is a mismatch between the willingness of farmers to pay for treated wastewater and the price set by the public authority leading to a limited demand. The actual context of free and unlimited access to groundwater does not encourage to shift the demand toward high-quality treated wastewater. Plans are being considered for recharging some of the aquifers with the treated wastewater. Irrigation efficiency improvements have been observed mainly for vegetable producers where the adoption of irrigation technology resulted in higher revenues and lower labor costs. Urban water prices are at 1/3 of their costs discouraging water saving and adoption of water saving/recycling devices at homes or industries. Urban water security is being addressed by aquifer storage and recovery techniques using excess winter desalinated water.

Saudi Arabia is an arid country that lacks permanent water-bodies. Saudi Arabia relies on its oil resources to operate its desalination plants to supply potable water. Paradoxically, it has the third highest per capita fresh-water consumption in the world, despite being one of the world’s driest countries. Extensive agricultural programs almost depleted the nonrenewable groundwater and deteriorated water quality. The rates of water being used by the urban population and the agricultural sector for producing crops appear to be wasteful (MEWA 2018). Efforts have been made to develop an extensive but efficient water transmission system. The water sector’s infrastructure is outdated and, in some areas, deteriorating. It is estimated that an average of 20% of distributed water remains unaccounted. The Saudi Government has streamlined the water sector’s regulatory regime through implementation of a strategic water policy. Through its water policy, it is looking at the most efficient ways to produce and regulate water. No country can be expected to try every possible solution, but in Saudi Arabia, no single solution would be adequate to address this complex issue. However, the most important step would be to bring behavior change in the society to use water economically and wisely by adopting water conservation practices.

In Tunisia, climate varies from Mediterranean to arid and semi-arid. Water resources are characterized by scarcity and a pronounced irregularity. The water supply policy, with nearly 40% of agricultural investment in the 1980s, allowed to develop an irrigated agriculture and to create an undeniable productive potential. Despite the performances in irrigated agriculture, the water sector still suffers from economic, social, ecological, and institutional problems. The scarcity of water induced by the increasing demands of various economic sectors and climate change effects leads to the questioning of current allocations of the water resources. Given the economic model adopted and the current governance, water scarcity would be a major threat for sustainability.

This chapter summarizes the most important water policies implemented in the seven countries considered in the book. It also assesses the progress made by each of the countries on the reforms judged fundamental to avoid water crises and social unrests and ensure water security for a sustainable development. The chapter concludes with a comparison of reforms undertaken worldwide and suggests some urgent measures that would speed up balancing supply and demand. Essentially demand management and cost recovery are judged urgent to undertake and feasible by learning from the successful energy price reforms undertaken in Iran and Oman for instance.