A Brief History of Computing

Frontmatter

Chapter 1. What Is a Computer?

Abstract

The first chapter provides an introduction to computing, where a computer is a programmable electronic device that can process, store, and retrieve data. It processes data according to a set of instructions (or program), and all computers consist of two basic parts namely hardware and software. There are two distinct families of computing devices namely digital computers and the historical analog computer. These two types of computer operate on quite different principles, and the earliest computers were analog. We discuss the von Neumann architecture, which is the fundamental architecture underlying a digital computer.

Gerard O’Regan

Chapter 2. Computing in Early Civilizations

Abstract

This chapter considers the contributions of early civilizations to the computing field, including the achievements of the Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and the Islamic world. The Babylonian civilization flourished in Mesopotamia (in modern Iraq) from about 2000 BC until about 300 BC, and they made important contributions to mathematics. The Egyptian civilization developed along the Nile from about 4000 BC, and their knowledge of mathematics allowed them to construct the pyramids at Giza and other impressive monuments. The Greeks made major contributions to western civilization including mathematics, logic, and philosophy. The Golden Age of Islamic civilization was from 750 AD to 1250 AD, and enlightened caliphs sponsored scholars to come to Baghdad to gather and translate the existing world knowledge into Arabic.

Gerard O’Regan

Chapter 3. Foundations of Computing

Abstract

This chapter discusses the foundations of computing, including the binary number system and the Step Reckoner calculating machine, which were invented by Leibniz. The difference engine was designed by Babbage to evaluate polynomials and to produce accurate mathematical tables. Babbage’s design of the analytic engine provided the vision of a modern computer, and Boole’s symbolic logic provides the foundation for digital computing.

Gerard O’Regan

Chapter 4. The First Digital Computers

Abstract

The Second World War motivated researchers to investigate faster ways to perform calculation to solve practical problems. This led to research into the development of digital computers to determine if they could provide faster methods of computation. The Atanasoff-Berry computer was developed at Iowa State University in the United States; the ENIAC and EDVAC computers were developed at the University of Pennsylvania in the United States; the Colossus computer was developed as part of the code-breaking work at Bletchley Park in England; Zuse’s computers were developed in Germany; and the Manchester Mark I computer was developed at the University of Manchester in England.

Gerard O’Regan

Chapter 5. The First Commercial Computers

Abstract

Chapter five discusses the first commercial computers, including the UNIVAC I developed by EMCC/Sperry in the United States for the US Census Bureau; the LEO I computer developed by J. Lyons and Co. in England in partnership with Maurice Wilkes of Cambridge University. The Z4 computer was developed by Zuse KG in Germany, and the Ferranti Mark I computer was developed by Ferranti in partnership with the University of Manchester in England.

Gerard O’Regan

Chapter 6. Early Commercial Computers and the Invention of the Transistor

Abstract

This chapter considers a selection of computers developed during the 1950s, and it includes a selection of vacuum-tube-based computers as well as transistor computers. One of the drivers for the design and development of more powerful computers was the perceived threat of the Soviet Union. This led to an arms race between the two superpowers, and it was clear that computing technology would play an important role in developing sophisticated weapon and defense systems. The SAGE air defense system developed for the United States and Canada was an early example of the use of computer technology for the military. Early IBM computers such as the IBM 701 and 704 computers are discussed, and the chapter concludes with a discussion of the invention of the transistor by William Shockley and others at Bell Labs.

Gerard O’Regan

Chapter 7. Integrated Circuit and Silicon Valley

Abstract

The invention of the integrated circuit allowed many transistors to be combined on a single chip, and it was a revolution in computing. The integrated circuit placed the previously separated transistors, resistors, capacitors, and wiring circuitry on to a single chip made of silicon or germanium. The integrated circuit shrunk the size and cost of making electronics, and it had a major influence on the design of later computers leading to faster and more powerful machines. The germanium-based integrated circuit was invented by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments, and Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductors did subsequent work on silicon-based integrated circuits. Moore’s Law on the exponential growth of transistor density on an integrated circuit is discussed, as well as its relevance to the computing power of electronic devices.

Gerard O’Regan

Chapter 8. The IBM System/360

Abstract

The IBM System/360 was a family of mainframe computers designed and developed by IBM. It had a major impact on technology and on the computing field, and it set IBM on the road to dominate the computing field for the next 20 years, up to the arrival of personal computers in the 1980s. The user could start with a low specification member of the family and upgrade over time to a more powerful member of the family. It was the start of an era of computer compatibility, and it set IBM on the road to dominate the computer field. It was a massive $5 billion gamble by IBM, and it moved the company from its existing product lines to the unknown world of the System/360.

Gerard O’Regan

Chapter 9. Minicomputers and Later Mainframes

Abstract

The minicomputer was a new class of low-cost computers that arose during the 1960s, and its development was facilitated by the introduction of integrated circuits, and their improved performance and declining cost. Minicomputers were distinguished from the large mainframe computers by price and size, and they formed a class of the smallest general-purpose computers. We discuss minicomputers such as DEC’s PDP-1, PDP-11, and VAX 11/780 minicomputers, which were popular with the engineering and scientific communities. Later, mainframes are discussed including the Amdahl 470V/6, and the intense competition between IBM and Amdahl in the high-end mainframe market.

Gerard O’Regan

Chapter 10. The Microprocessor Revolution

Abstract

A microprocessor is a central part of a modern personal computer (or computer device). It integrates the functions of a central processing unit (the part of a computer that processes the program instructions) onto a single integrated circuit and places a vast amount of processing power in a tiny space.

Intel’s invention of the microprocessor in 1971 was a revolution in computing, and it placed the power of a computer on a tiny chip. It was initially developed as an enhancement to allow users to add more memory to their units, and its invention made personal computers, tablets, and mobile phones possible.

We discuss early microprocessors such as the Intel 4004, the 8-bit Intel 8080, and the 8-bit Motorola 6800. The 16-bit Intel 8086 was introduced in 1978 and the 8-bit Intel 8088 (the cheaper 8-bit variant of the Intel 8086) was introduced in 1979, and it was chosen as the microprocessor for the IBM personal computer.

Gerard O’Regan

Chapter 11. Home Computers

Abstract

We consider a selection of home and personal computers, including early home computers such as the MITS Altair 8800, which was introduced in early 1975; the Apple I and II computers, which were released in 1976 and 1977, respectively; the Commodore PET computer, which was introduced in 1977; the Atari 400 and 800 computers, which were released in 1979; the popular Commodore 64 computer, which was introduced in 1982; and the Sinclair ZX 81 and ZX spectrum computers, which were released in 1980 and 1981, respectively. We discuss later Atari and Amiga computers and the Apple Macintosh computer, which was a major milestone in computing.

Gerard O’Regan

Chapter 12. The IBM Personal Computer

Abstract

The introduction of the IBM personal computer was a major milestone in the computing field. The introduction of the IBM personal computer was a paradigm shift in that it placed computing power in the hands of millions of people. The previous paradigm was that an individual user had limited control over a computer, with the system administrators controlling the access privileges of the individual users. IBM’s goal was to get into the home computer market as quickly as possible, and this led IBM to build the machine from off-the-shelf parts from a number of equipment manufacturers. IBM outsourced the development of the operating system to a small company called Microsoft, and Intel was chosen to supply the microprocessor for the IBM PC.

Gerard O’Regan

Chapter 13. History of Operating Systems

Abstract

This chapter presents a short history of operating systems, including the IBM OS/360, which was the operating system for the IBM System/360 family of computers. We discuss the MVS and VM operating systems, which were used on the IBM System/370 mainframe computer. Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie developed the popular UNIX operating system at Bell Labs in the early 1970s. DEC developed the VAX/VMS operating system in the late 1970s for its VAX family of minicomputers. Microsoft developed MS/DOS for the IBM personal computer in 1981, and it introduced Windows as a response to the Apple Macintosh. Android and iOS are popular operating systems for mobile devices.

Gerard O’Regan

Chapter 14. Birth of Software Industry and Human Computer Interaction

Abstract

The vast majority of software produced in the early days of computing was proprietary and developed by commercial vendors such as IBM and UNIVAC. Computer companies provided a total solution to their clients including both hardware and software, and there was a very limited independent software sector that developed application software for specific clients. Computer companies were essentially in the hardware business, and so they bundled the software with their machines, that is, the software was essentially given away free and provided with the mainframe computer.

IBM decided in 1968 to unbundle many of its software programs, and it introduced a new pricing strategy for its software programs and support and training services. The IBM decision meant that the computer industry changed forever, with software changing from being a giveaway item to becoming a commercial product and industry in its own right.

Gerard O’Regan

Chapter 15. History of Programming Languages

Abstract

This chapter presents a short history of programming languages, starting with machine languages, to assembly languages, to early high-level procedural languages such as Fortran and COBOL, to later high-level languages such as Pascal and C, and to object-oriented languages such as C++ and Java. Functional programming languages and logic programming languages are discussed, and there is a short discussion on the important area of syntax and semantics.

Gerard O’Regan

Chapter 16. History of Software Engineering

Abstract

This chapter presents a short history of software engineering from its birth at the Garmisch conference in Germany, and it is emphasized that software engineering is a lot more than just programming. We discuss the key challenges in software engineering, as well a number of the high-profile software failures. The waterfall and spiral lifecycles are discussed, as well as a brief discussion on the rational unified process and the popular agile methodology. We discuss the key activities in the waterfall model such as requirements, design, implementation, unit, system, and acceptance testing.

Gerard O’Regan

Chapter 17. A Short History of Telecommunications

Abstract

Telecommunications is a branch of technology concerned with the transmission of information over a distance, where the transmitter sends the information to a receiver. The development of the AXE system by Ericsson is discussed, and this was the first fully automated digital switching system. We discuss the concept of a cellular system, which was introduced by Bell Labs, as well as the introduction of the first mobile phone, the DynaTAC, by Motorola. We discuss the Iridium system, which was launched in late 1998 to provide worldwide wireless coverage to its customers, and the coverage included the oceans, airways and Polar Regions. The existing telecom systems had limited coverage in remote areas, and so the concept of global coverage as provided by Iridium was potentially very useful.

Gerard O’Regan

Chapter 18. The Internet Revolution

Abstract

This chapter describes the Internet revolution starting from ARPANET, which was a packet-switched network to TCP/IP, which is a set of network standards for interconnecting networks and computers. These developments led to the birth of the Internet, and Tim Berners-Lee’s work at CERN led to the birth of the World Wide Web. Berners-Lee built on several existing inventions such as the Internet, hypertext, and the mouse to form the World Wide Web. Applications of the World Wide Web as well as successful and unsuccessful new economy companies are discussed. The dot com bubble and subsequent burst of the late 1990s/early 2000 are discussed.

Gerard O’Regan

Chapter 19. The Smartphone and Social Media

Abstract

Smartphones arose from the marriage of the existing mobile phone technology and PDA technology. A smartphone is essentially a touch-based computer on a phone, which comes with its own keyboard, operating system, Internet access, and third party applications. It provides many other features such as a camera, maps, calendar, alarm clock, and games. Today, the smartphone is ubiquitous.

We discuss the impact of Facebook and Twitter in social networking. Facebook is the leading social media site in the world, and it has become a way for young people to discuss their hopes and aspirations as well as a tool for social protest and revolution. Twitter has become a popular tool in political communication, and it is also an effective way for businesses to advertise its brand to its target audience.

Gerard O’Regan

Chapter 20. A Miscellany of Innovation

Abstract

The process of translating a business idea or invention into a product or service that adds value and that people will pay for is termed innovation. However, for a business idea to be termed innovative, it must be commercially viable at an economic cost that people will be willing to pay, and it must satisfy a specific customer need (as otherwise there will be no demand for it).

An evolutionary innovation is generally brought about by incremental advances in technology, whereas a revolutionary innovation is often totally new and completely different from the existing products in the market place (e.g., the development of the Apple Macintosh or iPhone were paradigm shifts from the existing state of the art). There is generally greater risk with a revolutionary innovation as it is creating an entirely new product and assuming that the future will be the whereas evolutionary innovations generally involve less risk.

We discuss innovations in the computer field including distributed systems, service-oriented architecture (SOA), software as a service (SaaS), cloud computing, embedded systems, WiFi, Quantum computing, GPS, and Wikipedia.

Gerard O’Regan

Chapter 21. History of Databases

Abstract

This chapter presents a short history of databases including the hierarchical model, the network model, and the relational model. We discuss the relational model as developed by Codd at IBM in more detail, as most databases used today are relational. There is a short discussion on the SQL query language and on the Oracle database.

Gerard O’Regan

Chapter 22. History of Artificial Intelligence

Abstract

This chapter presents a short history of artificial intelligence (AI), and we discuss the Turing Test, which is a test of machine intelligence. We discuss strong and weak AI, where strong AI considers an AI-programmed computer to be essentially a mind, whereas weak AI considers an AI computer to simulate thought without real understanding. We discuss Searle’s Chinese room, which is a rebuttal of strong AI, and we discuss philosophical issues in AI and Weizenbaum’s views on the ethics of AI. There are many subfields in AI and we discuss logic, neural networks, and expert systems.

Gerard O’Regan

Chapter 23. Ethics and Professional Responsibility

Abstract

This chapter discusses ethics and professional responsibility in the computing field. Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with moral questions such as what is right or wrong, and computer ethics are a set of principles that guide the behavior of individuals when using computer resources. Professional ethics are a code of conduct that governs how members of a profession deal with each other and with third parties, and we discuss Parnas’s contributions to professional responsibility and the ACM and BCS code of ethics.

Gerard O’Regan

Chapter 24. Legal Aspects of Computing

Abstract

This chapter discusses the legal aspects of computing and is concerned with the overlap of the law and the computing field. We discuss intellectual property such as patents, copyright, and trademarks, and the licensing of software. We examine the area of hacking and computer crime, and explore the nature of privacy, free speech, and censorship. We consider the legal issues of bespoke software development and the legal aspects of the Internet.

Gerard O’Regan

Backmatter