Introduction
Study area
The farms
Materials and methods
Analytical framework: Landscape assessment of ecosystem services
Ecosystem service | Indicator number # (from SI) |
---|---|
1. Pollination | P4, S10 |
2. Pest control | P4, S3 |
3. Recreation | P1, P2, S9 |
4. Biodiversity | P3, P7, P8, S4, S8, S10 |
5. Food production | P2, P5, S2, S6 |
6. Timber production | P2, P6, S2, S6 |
7. Nutrient retention | P10, S3 |
8. Water availability | P9 |
9. Esthetic experience | P1, P3, S1, S10 |
10. Farmer identity | S1, S2, S5, S9, S11 |
11. Cultural heritage | P11, S4, S7 |
Landscape specific empirical data
Birds and plant surveys
In-depth interviews
Publicly available data
Method for comparing landscapes
Results
Production landscapes and management
Both sets of farmers expressed a profound care for the land and the landscape. The owners of the low-intensity farms all had occupations unrelated to farming providing the major part of their income, and being a farmer was valued for the pleasure of being in and interacting with nature (Fig. 2, indicated by S9). In contrast, the owners of the high-intensity farms were professionals with little or no additional income; they valued their independence as farmers, and often viewed regulations on preservation of cultural heritage as chafing (Fig. 2, indicated by S4 and S5). Illustrated by one high-intensity farmer, identity was strongly linked to the pride in producing and selling crops grown on their land.High-intensity farmer (5) “I don’t believe in either or, of either organic or not … I believe that for this to work a middle way is needed. But how to manage that… I mean, you care, this is where you live, and all your neighbors and friends—you don’t want to pollute waters, you do all you can to minimize impacts.”
One of the most explicitly articulated values was the importance of having well-tended farms, where the land itself, together with the buildings and infrastructure, should be in good condition and both look and be economically valuable (Fig. 2, indicated by S1). This is in stark contrast to how the low-intensity farmers value their production landscape (described below).High-intensity farmer (1): “To be able to sow in the spring, and amble in the field and watch how it grows, that gives me great pleasure […] I then follow the sprouts until they are a decimetre. To see this, you walk there and can see it growing a centimetre or two each day, the strength…”
Recreation and other non-economic uses of land
Grazed semi-natural grasslands were more frequent in the low-intensity system (Fig. 2, indicated by P11). All low-intensity farmers engaged in farming for the joy of producing for example high quality meat for the household, and for the clearly stated importance of preserving traditional cultural landscapes. The comparison of road networks in the two systems indicated that the landscape around the high-intensity farms was more easily accessible although the variation in land cover types along the roads was very similar (Fig. 2, indicated by P1–P4).Low-intensity farmer (6)”Nature does work without pesticides. The pesticides have been brought into increase productivity. Perhaps I am not right in this, but if you put plants and animals under stress you lose a lot. A fast growing carrot is not as rich in minerals and vitamins as one that has been allowed to grow slowly. The same for animals, you shouldn’t force a cow to eat too much cereals—they are grass eaters.”
Biodiversity
To the low-intensity farmers conservation meant keeping the forest from expanding, and in some cases actively reclaiming abandoned land. In terms of bird and plant diversity, the farm environment in the low-intensity system had more forest-associated species (on average 11.6 compared to 5.4 species) and compared to the high-intensity farms many bird species associated with agricultural lands were absent despite the presence of fields and active agriculture (on average 4.4–8.5 species) (see Electronic Supplementary Material Tables S3, S4 for complete species lists). Plants associated with semi-natural pastures were found in comparable numbers in the two systems (mean richness 34.4 species in low and 33.9 in high). The farmers, low intensity more than high intensity, stressed the importance of managing land to maintain high biodiversity, often referring to specific threatened species or groups of species, although few were found in the survey (Fig. 2, S8; Electronic Supplementary Material Tables S3, S4).Low-intensity farmer (5)”We have high priority areas [for biodiversity conservation] here and many plants would disappear if we used artificial fertilizers. The grass would take over and all the little flowers and plants would disappear. […] To me the preservation of the meadows and the flowers is precious”