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2020 | Buch

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Air Pollution and Environmental Health

herausgegeben von: Dr. Pallavi Saxena, Dr. Anju Srivastava

Verlag: Springer Singapore

Buchreihe : Environmental Chemistry for a Sustainable World

Enthalten in: Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" , Springer Professional "Technik"

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Über dieses Buch

Air pollution is an alarming problem, not only in terms of air quality, but also in relation to health issues. Toxic air pollutant concentrations produce harmful impacts on plant health and human health. Further, though there are various sources of air pollution, anthropogenic and biogenic sources are becoming increasingly problematic. A number of control methods have been applied to reduce the air pollutant concentrations so that their global environmental burden on plants as well as humans can be mitigated. However, as confirmed in numerous reports and studies, their concentrations continue to be very high and everyday cases related to air pollution have become exponentially high not only in developing countries but also in developed countries. In plants, toxic air quality has various adverse effects, including biochemical and physiological disorders, chronic diseases and/or lower yields. In humans, air pollutants affect the body’s metabolism and immune system, lungs and central nervous system.

This book provides an essential overview of air pollution, its impacts on plant and human health, and potential control strategies. The respective chapters cover general monitoring and characterization techniques for air pollutants, air quality modelling applications, plant and human health effects, risk assessment, and air pollution control policy. Given its scope, the book offers a valuable and unique resource for students of Environmental Science, Biological Science, Medical Science and Agriculture; and for environmental consultants, researchers and other professionals whose work involves air quality, plant and human related research.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Frontmatter

Chapter 1. Introduction

Abstract

Air pollution is regarded as a global burden disease in the recent years, even after the implementation of various significant control policies and measures. Air pollution is also one of the important elements of health risk assessment studies. Overpopulation, drastic increase in urban settlements, and set up of various industries lead to the problem of increment of primary and secondary air pollutants which are the major cause for deterioration of plant and human health. These hazardous agents emitted through anthropogenic and biogenic sources contribute to high concentrations in the atmosphere. Comprehensive studies on various air pollutants, their impacts on plant as well as human health and possible control measures for the same are very less reported. Such studies can help the policy makers to suggest some cost-effective measures for the control of these air pollutants. This chapter focuses on the nature, chemistry, and sources of air pollutants and their impact on plant as well as human health. It also summarizes the highlights of different chapters signifying various aspects of air pollutants in consideration with plant as well as human health.

Pallavi Saxena, Anju Srivastava

Chapter 2. Monitoring and Assessment of Air Pollution

Abstract

During the last few decades, the rapid increase of industrialization and urbanization are the two major factors responsible for high levels of various air pollutants all over the globe. The enhancement of air pollutants into the atmosphere from different natural and anthropogenic emission sources have many observable hostile effects on biota, air quality (like impacts on health, air quality, agriculture, economy, etc.) and future climate change too. Thus, the accurate measurement of air pollution on a global scale is highly needed which will be helpful for the policymakers to improve the air quality management and understanding of future climate change. In the last few decades, the continuous development in technology resulting in development of a highly sophisticated and accurate instrument which is capable of measuring air pollutants and trace gases present in polluted air and widely used on global as well as regional scale. Currently, ample numbers of monitoring and controlling programs are in progress to overcome the complexity of air pollution. The present chapter summarizes a brief overview of the state of different techniques to measure air pollution.

Shani Tiwari, Bing Chen, A. K. Singh

Chapter 3. Air Pollution Modeling

Abstract

Since over the mid of the last century, anthropogenic emissions of trace gases and aerosols are increasing because of the competitive rapid economic growth, industrial development, and emissions from biomass burning and fossil fuel combustion all over the world. These are the major causes for global environment changes including the global spread of air pollution, increase in the concentrations of tropospheric oxidants, global warming, and typical seasonal variability. To understand the major causes of air pollution-related issues, several platforms have been used including in situ measurements of trace gases and aerosol, emission inventories datasets, satellite observations, regional, local and global chemical transport models. This chapter discusses air pollution in terms of advancement of the modeling performance. In addition to this, the section includes the major scientific outputs of air pollution using measurements and modeling activities all over the world. The chapter concludes with a focus on air pollution research activities and policy questions in the next upcoming years that will be helpful for advance understanding of air pollution research activities as well as setting up the reference for the environmental policies all over the world.

Ravi Yadav, Pujal Trivedi, L. K. Sahu, G. Beig, Nidhi Tripathi

Chapter 4. Impact of Air Pollutants on Plant Metabolism and Antioxidant Machinery

Abstract

Accumulation of toxic substances in biosphere negatively affects the structure and function of natural ecosystem. With progress in technology, diverse array of pollutants are rapidly being added to the atmosphere by mankind without understanding their fate in nature. Therefore, it becomes essential to analyze the impact of these pollutants on organisms. It is important to understand the effect of these pollutants on plants from where it is transferred to next members of food chain ultimately affecting the mankind. Various physiological and biochemical processes such as gaseous exchange, photosynthesis, respiration, and protein synthesis are known to be affected by air pollutants. Plants respond to these abiotic stress situations by activating the stress signals leading to various physiological, genetic, and metabolic changes. This chapter highlights the effect of variety of air pollutants on plant health and activation of antioxidant system as a defense mechanism.

Amarjeet Singh

Chapter 5. Role of Global Climate Change in Crop Yield Reductions

Abstract

Uncontrolled emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) leads to global warming and climate change. It is progressively changing at an alarming rate in the coming future. Increasing global warming is responsible for the difference in temperature, frequency of precipitation, drought events, and heat waves. By the end of the twenty-first century, the CO₂ crosses the concentration more than 600–1000 ppm, and it increases the temperature by 1–2 °C in tropical and subtropical countries. It is anticipated that food grain production would decline up to 30% depending on the plant group (C3 and C4 plant). This chapter deals with how C3 and C4 crop plant responds to elevated CO₂ and higher temperature. Increasing concentration of atmospheric CO₂ and higher temperature will promote or decrease crop growth period, development, quality, and yield. The various physiological processes like photosynthesis, respiration, and stomatal conductance are the sole mechanisms for endorsing crop growth. C3 crops grown from ambient (360 ppm) to high (720 ppm) CO₂ concentrations initially enhances the net CO₂ fixation and growth by nearly 30% but later on it reduced in photorespiration processes. Hence, CO₂ acclimation lowers down the overall shoot nitrogen concentrations. Later on, this led to a reduction in protein content and ultimately affected the plant growth rate and biomass, whereas even under the ambient CO₂, the C4 plant assimilation capability becomes saturated. The higher temperature will be responsible for heat shock injury as well as biochemical and physiological changes. Subsequently, it reduced grain production and yield depending on the geographical place. The higher temperature influences and maintains the equilibrium between C3 photosynthetic carbon assimilation and photorespiration process. It is predicted that after the interaction of atmospheric CO₂ and temperature under experimental conditions, C3 plants more favored under elevated CO₂ whereas, C4 plant more favored under higher temperature. There is a need for mitigation and adaptation strategies to improve agricultural crop production and minimizes the production risk for sustainable development.

Gyan Prakash Gupta

Chapter 6. Air Pollution and Its Role in Stress Physiology

Abstract

Environment plays a crucial role in the physiological processes of plants. The numerous biotic and abiotic stresses in the plant habitat trigger complex responses in vital processes like photosynthesis, respiration and stomatal function. In this chapter we discuss the effect of various air pollutants on the stress physiological parameters. These studies are crucial because one of the major responses to plant pollutants is the inhibition of photosynthesis. This inhibition of photosynthesis not only alters the growth pattern and longevity but also changes plant phenology. Besides, assimilation of pollutants into the plant processes ultimately leads to their inclusion in the animal community. All this leads to a vicious cycle wherein the ecological factors suppress plant growth and in turn plants hamper the ecology. In this chapter we have also reviewed and highlighted the mechanistic aspect of the pollutants on the vital physiological parameters. The major pollutants which are emphasized are sulphur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NO_x) and ozone (O₃) while physiological parameters reviewed are stomatal conductance, photosynthesis and respiration and photorespiration. These physiological processes are important parameters in governing growth and health of plants. Because all the natural processes are cyclic in nature, it is pertinent to observe that the stress in plants caused by the pollutants also directly and indirectly affects the human population.

Deepti Goyal, Alpa Yadav, Tanvi Vats

Chapter 7. Air Pollution Exposure Studies Related to Human Health

Abstract

Air is a complex amalgamation of gases, water vapor, and dust particles. With development in civilized human society and later on boom in industrialization, there is drastic change in the air quality levels. Levels of different gaseous pollutants, heavy metals, particulate matter, volatile organic compounds, and other pollutants are constantly rising up in the air majorly due to combustion of solid fuels and fossil fuels. All these pollutants greatly diverge in their chemical composition, reaction time and mechanism of action. Depending on the exposure time and concentration, these pollutants can exert various toxicological impacts on human health such as respiratory, neurological, and cardiovascular disorder and other life-threatening diseases like cancer. Air pollution has also been connected with premature child birth, morbidity, mortality and reduced life expectancy. In this chapter, the sources of air pollution their effects on different organs and systems in human body as well as their mechanism of action will be discussed.

Neha Singh

Chapter 8. Impacts of Air Pollution on Epidemiology and Cardiovascular Systems

Abstract

Our health is closely related to our environment, such that a healthy environment brings healthy living and vice versa. Pollution due to air is a prime environmental aspect contributing to the burden of different diseases in human and also has considerable economic impact. The total air pollution accounts approximately 7 million deaths globally. Pollutants produced as combustion of particulate matter have demonstrated a time-series effect on human health. The size of inhalable particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) affects the mortality and morbidity upon short- and long-term exposure among all population, with highest effect on elderly individuals. Exposure to these pollutants produces the pathological alteration, such as increased inflammatory response, systemic oxidative stress, cardiovascular stress, and change in pulmonary autonomous nervous system activity. These molecular pathological events trigger several pulmonary and cardiovascular manifestations in human. From epidemiology point of view, it has been explored that among different air pollutants, particulate matter, ozone, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide are the major ones. The highest mortality is mainly observed in Asian populations as compared to Europeans and Americans. The top ten countries with the highest mortality are China, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nigeria, the United States, Russia, Brazil, and Philippines, respectively. In this chapter, we reviewed different PM exposure-based epidemiological studies with more focus on high ambient Total Suspended Particulate (TSP) levels. It has also been found that overall absolute risk for mortality due to PM exposure is higher for cardiovascular compared to pulmonary disorders in case of both acute and chronic exposures.

Ram Raj Prasad, Sandeep Paudel

Chapter 9. Health Risk Assessment and Management of Air Pollutants

Abstract

Air pollution is a vital global public health concern which is generally addressed by collective societal action, particularly to control emissions, i.e. primary air pollutants which are precursors in the formation of secondary air pollutants via different atmospheric chemical reactions. The massive increase in emission of air pollutants in the atmosphere is major cause of human health and environmental problems. According to WHO, it is revealed that particulate matter (PM) exposure is responsible for ~800,000 premature deaths alone each year as compared to other air pollutants. Therefore, more systematic studies for the measurement of various air pollutants are still required to examine the current scenario and their physicochemical characteristics especially focused on PM. This will aid in health risk assessment of air pollutants by using various tools and estimation methods. The present chapter describes the brief introduction of air pollutants and their emission source characteristics along with detailed systematic findings and outcomes of the different studies. In addition, the methods/equations and diverse tools used for risk assessment by scientific community and various researchers have been introduced at regional and global level. Also, the methods and approaches that can be employed for the management of air pollutants (indoor and outdoor) in Indian context have been described. Overall, the chapter gives an idea about the deterioration of air quality due to emission of various pollutants, their formation and management methods along with the concerned health issues. This will serve as an imperative document for the scientific community and policy makers to develop effective mitigation policies with respect to air quality improvement.

Atar Singh Pipal, Stuti Dubey, Ajay Taneja

Chapter 10. Air Quality Management Practices: A Sustainable Perspective

Abstract

The quality of air and its management should always be a matter of debate either in developed or developing society. Rapid industrialization, self-centered approach, and dire need to earn more without giving heed to community needs lead to catastrophic results. During the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the pace of industrialization was tremendous. The two world wars and then reinstitution of humanity again shifted the burden on nature. Only after 1972, when it was realized that something has gone wrong and left behind, the attempts to regenerate the nature started. The concept of sustainable development was introduced and commitment towards the same was called upon. After Stockholm, the commitment was incorporated in the Constitution of India, 1950 and to adhere the international obligations, Water Act, 1974; Air Act, 1981; Environment Protection Act, 1986 were enacted. The catastrophe of Bhopal in 1984 compelled the Supreme Court of India to step in for air quality management and do the needful till the time Government thinks to legislate. A new rule of Absolute Liability (M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (Oleum Gas Leak Case), AIR 1987 SC 1086) was propounded by changing the age-old Strict Liability (Rylands v. Fletcher, [1868] UKHL 1, (1868) LR 3 HL 330). Since then, both the Government and the Courts have gone together to see, check, and curb the air pollution. Nevertheless, sparse funding elevates the problem exponentially. Commitment is the sine qua non for problem redressal, which predominantly seems absent. However, the judicial hunch of having public participation in the form of Public Interest Litigation has been the horse of the carriage. The introduction of the BS-VI norms for the vehicular emission, compulsory introduction of electric vehicles, removal of diesel locomotives, imposing penalty on stubble burning, making LPG cylinders available to all for alleviation of wood fuel, and compensatory afforestation are the primary check points of sustainable practices leading to air quality management. Thus the present chapter focuses on the developments and implementations in air quality management and the possible sustainable measures for the same.

Vibhav Mishra, Aditya Ranjan

Titel: Air Pollution and Environmental Health
herausgegeben von: Dr. Pallavi Saxena
Dr. Anju Srivastava
Verlag: Springer Singapore
Electronic ISBN: 978-981-15-3481-2
Print ISBN: 978-981-15-3480-5
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3481-2