1 Introduction
1.1 Subjective Well-Being
1.2 Aims
2 Methods
2.1 Participants
2.2 Procedure
2.3 Psychometric Measures
2.3.1 Subjective Well-Being
2.3.2 Psychopathology
2.3.3 Coping Strategies
2.4 Statistical Analysis
3 Results
3.1 Demographic Data
M (SD) | Adaptive | Maladaptive | Avoidance | Expressive Suppression | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
I try to let negative thoughts simply pass by like ‘dark clouds’ | 2.62 (0.83) | 0.668 | − 0.249 | − 0.044 | 0.001 |
If negative thoughts bother me, I try to distract myself from them | 2.94 (0.76) | 0.648 | − 0.015 | − 0.019 | 0.140 |
I try to imagine a happy ending | 3.05 (0.87) | 0.612 | − 0.113 | − 0.118 | − 0.171 |
I generally try to suppress negative thoughts and do not allow myself to think them | 2.61 (0.88) | 0.608 | − 0.194 | 0.117 | 0.141 |
I strive to view problems as an opportunity and to grow with the challenge | 2.86 (0.86) | 0.600 | − 0.199 | − 0.353 | − 0.123 |
I try to stay relaxed | 3.18 (0.76) | 0.599 | − 0.342 | − 0.157 | 0.073 |
I accept a situation with which I am not totally happy and try to make the best of it | 3.01 (0.75) | 0.598 | − 0.164 | − 0.074 | 0.092 |
I accept situations that I cannot change anyway (such as a chronic disease, aging) | 2.94 (0.84) | 0.563 | − 0.240 | − 0.058 | 0.067 |
I try to suppress negative thoughts in situations in which having such thoughts is not useful (such as when giving a speech) | 2.87 (0.78) | 0.549 | − 0.064 | − 0.077 | 0.234 |
I think over problems but can stop if I realize that my thinking is not leading to solutions | 2.75 (0.84) | 0.534 | − 0.077 | − 0.155 | − 0.002 |
I try to quickly stop fruitless ruminations | 2.80 (0.84) | 0.527 | − 0.204 | − 0.265 | 0.073 |
It helps to think about others who are in a worse situation than me | 2.48 (0.97) | 0.407 | 0.110 | 0.090 | − 0.220 |
Thinking over my problems again and again has helped me find solutions in the past | 2.78 (0.83) | 0.369 | 0.215 | − 0.291 | − 0.016 |
I use humor to help cope with my problems (e.g., imagining an absurd outcome to a situation or joking with a friend) | 3.04 (0.85) | 0.341 | 0.125 | − 0.019 | − 0.011 |
I avoid things and situations that get me into trouble | 3.33 (0.67) | 0.292 | 0.064 | − 0.270 | 0.235 |
I quickly imagine the worst | 2.46 (1.03) | − 0.330 | 0.737 | 0.262 | 0.050 |
I worry even about relatively insignificant things/events in the future | 2.55 (1.02) | − 0.194 | 0.706 | 0.247 | 0.010 |
When making decisions I imagine the worst-case scenario in order to prepare myself for it | 2.86 (0.90) | 0.044 | 0.692 | − 0.031 | 0.042 |
I emotionally overreact quickly (e.g., with worries, fear, accusations) | 2.40 (1.00) | − 0.273 | 0.661 | 0.346 | − 0.127 |
I worry about things in the future that are important or which I can influence | 3.04 (0.82) | − 0.030 | 0.651 | − 0.121 | 0.098 |
When something goes wrong, I usually blame myself | 2.56 (0.95) | − 0.216 | 0.597 | 0.231 | 0.154 |
I easily come to feel like I am a failure | 2.14 (1.08) | − 0.319 | 0.594 | 0.378 | 0.126 |
Imagining the worst-case scenario, even if it is very unlikely, has helped me find solutions in the past | 2.57 (0.89) | 0.134 | 0.529 | − 0.109 | 0.039 |
I tend to make problems even bigger than they are | 2.09 (0.93) | − 0.317 | 0.521 | 0.390 | − 0.055 |
I am prone to rumination | 2.53 (0.93) | − 0.307 | 0.520 | 0.155 | 0.013 |
Stress or problems do not immediately nag at my self-esteem | 2.45 (0.99) | 0.466 | − 0.482 | − 0.136 | − 0.025 |
It is easy to tell by looking at me that I am suffering in a certain situation | 2.42 (0.95) | − 0.047 | 0.363 | 0.218 | − 0.351 |
I often put off dealing with my problems in the hopes that they will go away | 2.30 (0.98) | − 0.036 | 0.299 | 0.710 | 0.061 |
I do not try to change a negative situation even if I could actually change it | 1.79 (0.79) | − 0.084 | 0.108 | 0.642 | − 0.003 |
When I am unhappy with a situation, I try to change it if it can be changed | 3.20 (0.72) | 0.458 | − 0.020 | − 0.559 | 0.113 |
I actively address a problem and try to resolve it | 3.16 (0.72) | 0.469 | − 0.166 | − 0.512 | − 0.043 |
I can understand well the cause of a problem | 3.16 (0.61) | 0.355 | − 0.146 | − 0.411 | 0.048 |
I avoid problems | 2.70 (0.93) | 0.118 | 0.171 | 0.390 | 0.211 |
I hide my emotions even from people I know well | 2.59 (0.92) | 0.078 | 0.063 | 0.363 | 0.690 |
I always keep my problems to myself and do not share them with people I don’t know | 2.89 (0.90) | 0.125 | − 0.005 | 0.142 | 0.681 |
I keep my problems to myself and do not share them even with people I know well | 2.50 (0.96) | 0.076 | 0.025 | 0.451 | 0.681 |
I hide my emotions from people I do not know well | 3.27 (0.78) | 0.119 | 0.216 | − 0.080 | 0.680 |
I hide my emotions when it is appropriate (e.g., when getting negative feedback from my boss) | 3.22 (0.74) | 0.155 | 0.175 | − 0.212 | 0.540 |
I seek out help even from strangers | 1.85 (0.84) | 0.361 | 0.025 | 0.128 | − 0.492 |
I seek out help from people who I view as trustworthy (e.g., talk to partner/ family member/close friend) | 3.15 (0.85) | 0.343 | 0.134 | − 0.309 | − 0.408 |
When I have a problem or feel distressed, I feel better after I burst out with emotion | 2.35 (0.91) | 0.148 | 0.342 | 0.192 | − 0.350 |
3.2 Exploratory Factor Analysis
Maladaptive | Avoidance | Expressive suppression | Affect balance | Life satisfaction | Depressiveness | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Adaptive | − 0.511*** | − 0.485*** | 0.106** | 0.535*** | 0.456*** | − 0.372*** |
Maladaptive | 0.496*** | 0.156*** | − 0.599*** | − 0.409*** | 0.594*** | |
Avoidance | 0.141*** | − 0.419*** | − 0.280*** | 0.416*** | ||
Expressive suppression | − 0.148*** | − 0.174*** | 0.156*** | |||
Affect balance | 0.654*** | − 0.649*** | ||||
Life satisfaction | − 0.411*** |
3.3 Situational Dependence of Coping Strategies’ Functionality
3.4 Associations between Coping, Subjective Well-Being, and Depressiveness
3.4.1 Affect Balance
Affect balance | Life satisfaction | Depressiveness | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B [95%-CI] | SE B | ß | p | B [95%-CI] | SE B | ß | p | B [95%-CI] | SE B | ß | p | |
Step 1 | ||||||||||||
Constant | − 3.29 [− 6.30, − 0.28] | 1.53 | .032 | 38.02 [29.62, 46.42] | 4.28 | .000 | 9.58 [7.33, 11.82] | 1.14 | 0.000 | |||
Age | − 0.01 [− 0.05, 0.02] | 0.02 | − 0.02 | .533 | − 0.15 [− 0.25, − 0.05] | 0.05 | − 0.09 | .002 | − 0.07 [− 0.10, − 0.05] | 0.01 | − 0.15 | .000 |
Gender | 0.77 [− 0.08, 1.61] | 0.43 | 0.04 | .076 | 3.02 [0.67, 5.38] | 1.20 | 0.07 | .012 | 0.21 [− 0.41, 0.82] | 0.31 | 0.02 | .510 |
Education (high school vs. started college) | 0.61 [− 0.43, 1.66] | 0.53 | 0.03 | .250 | − 2.22 [− 5.14, 0.69] | 1.48 | − 0.05 | .134 | 0.97 [0.22, 1.73] | 0.38 | 0.07 | .011 |
Education (high school vs. college degree) | 0.16 [− 1.20, 1.51] | 0.69 | 0.01 | .820 | 4.93 [1.16, 8.71] | 1.92 | 0.11 | .011 | − 0.37 [− 1.35, 0.62] | 0.50 | − 0.03 | .465 |
Education (high school vs. professional degree) | 1.00 [− 0.62, 2.63] | 0.83 | 0.04 | .225 | 6.64 [2.11, 11.18] | 2.31 | 0.12 | .004 | 0.42 [− 0.76, 1.60] | 0.60 | 0.02 | .483 |
Ethnicity | 0.78 [− 0.27, 1.83] | 0.54 | 0.04 | .143 | 1.23 [− 1.70, 4.16] | 1.49 | 0.02 | .411 | − 0.24 [− 1.00, 0.52] | 0.39 | − 0.02 | .542 |
WSQ diagnosis | − 1.58 [− 2.70, − 0.46] | 0.57 | − 0.07 | .006 | − 4.40 [− 7.52, − 1.28] | 1.59 | − 0.09 | .006 | 2.37 [1.58, 3.17] | 0.41 | 0.16 | .000 |
Received psychiatric diagnosis | − 0.51 [− 1.43, 0.41] | 0.47 | − 0.03 | .276 | − 1.43 [− 4.00, 1.13] | 1.31 | − 0.03 | .273 | 1.97 [1.32, 2.62] | 0.33 | 0.16 | .000 |
Current mood | 4.12 [3.62, 4.62] | 0.25 | 0.41 | .000 | 8.73 [7.34, 10.12] | 0.71 | 0.39 | .000 | − 0.31 [− 0.73, 0.11] | 0.21 | − 0.05 | .154 |
Depressiveness | − 0.66 [− 0.74, − 0.57] | 0.04 | − 0.44 | .000 | − 0.72 [− 0.95, − 0.48] | 0.12 | − 0.22 | .000 | ||||
Life satisfaction | 0.01 [− 0.01, 0.03] | 0.01 | 0.03 | .332 | ||||||||
Affect balance | − 0.36 [− 0.41, − 0.31] | 0.03 | − 0.53 | .000 | ||||||||
Step 2 | ||||||||||||
Constant | − 3.21 [− 8.20, 1.78] | 2.54 | .207 | 26.59 [12.33, 40.84] | 7.26 | .000 | − 2.02 [− 5.85, 1.82] | 1.95 | .302 | |||
Age | − 0.03 [− 0.07, 0.00] | 0.02 | − 0.05 | .042 | − 0.19 [− 0.28, − 0.09] | 0.05 | − 0.11 | .000 | − 0.05 [− 0.07, − 0.02] | 0.01 | − 0.09 | .000 |
Gender | 0.96 [0.19, 1.74] | 0.40 | 0.05 | .015 | 3.15 [0.92, 5.37] | 1.13 | 0.08 | .006 | 0.14 [− 0.46, 0.73] | 0.30 | 0.01 | .648 |
Education (high school vs. started college) | 0.19 [− 0.77, 1.14] | 0.49 | 0.01 | .697 | − 2.93 [− 5.66, − 0.20] | 1.39 | − 0.06 | .035 | 1.18 [0.46, 1.90] | 0.37 | 0.08 | .001 |
Education (high school vs. college degree) | 0.35 [− 0.88, 1.59] | 0.63 | 0.02 | .572 | 5.78 [2.26, 9.30] | 1.79 | 0.13 | .001 | − 0.27 [− 1.21, 0.67] | 0.48 | − 0.02 | .574 |
Education (high school vs. professional degree) | 1.34 [− 0.14, 2.83] | 0.76 | 0.05 | .076 | 7.98 [3.74, 12.21] | 2.16 | 0.14 | .000 | 0.48 [− 0.66, 1.61] | 0.58 | 0.03 | .408 |
Ethnicity | 1.19 [0.23, 2.15] | 0.49 | 0.05 | .015 | 2.15 [− 0.59, 4.90] | 1.40 | 0.04 | .124 | − 0.24 [− 0.97, 0.49] | 0.37 | − 0.02 | .520 |
WSQ diagnosis | − 0.78 [− 1.81, 0.25] | 0.53 | − 0.04 | .139 | − 2.65 [− 5.60, 0.29] | 1.50 | − 0.05 | .078 | 1.81 [1.03, 2.58] | 0.39 | 0.12 | .000 |
Received psychiatric diagnosis | − 0.52 [− 1.36, 0.31] | 0.43 | − 0.03 | .220 | − 1.52 [− 3.91, 0.87] | 1.22 | − 0.04 | .213 | 1.84 [1.21, 2.46] | 0.32 | 0.15 | .000 |
Current mood | 3.33 [2.86, 3.80] | 0.24 | 0.33 | .000 | 6.77 [5.43, 8.12] | 0.69 | 0.31 | .000 | − 0.38 [− 0.78, 0.03] | 0.20 | − 0.06 | .067 |
Depressiveness | − 0.44 [− 0.53, − 0.36) | 0.04 | − 0.30 | .000 | − 0.33 [− 0.57, − 0.08] | 0.13 | − 0.10 | .009 | ||||
Life satisfaction | 0.01 [− 0.01, 0.03] | 0.01 | 0.04 | .258 | ||||||||
Affect balance | − 0.27 [− 0.32, − 0.21] | 0.03 | − 0.40 | .000 | ||||||||
Adaptive coping | 0.33 [0.25, 0.42] | 0.04 | 0.21 | .000 | 1.08 [0.83, 1.33] | 0.13 | 0.30 | .000 | 0.08 [0.01, 0.14] | 0.04 | 0.07 | .032 |
Maladaptive coping | − 0.26 [− 0.34, − 0.18] | 0.04 | − 0.19 | .000 | − 0.32 [− 0.55, − 0.08] | 0.12 | − 0.10 | .009 | 0.22 [0.16, 0.28] | 0.03 | 0.23 | .000 |
Avoidance coping | 0.01 [− 0.19, 0.21] | 0.10 | 0.00 | .900 | 0.49 [− 0.08, 1.06] | 0.29 | 0.06 | .093 | 0.29 [0.14, 0.44] | 0.08 | 0.11 | .000 |
Expressive suppression coping | − 0.19 [− 0.32, − 0.06] | 0.07 | − 0.06 | .004 | − 1.04 [− 1.41, − 0.67] | 0.19 | − 0.16 | .000 | 0.02 [− 0.08, 0.12] | 0.05 | 0.01 | .693 |