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2021 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

5. Crimean Tatar Community in Turkey (1908–): From Émigré to Diaspora Nationalism

verfasst von : Filiz Tutku Aydın

Erschienen in: Émigré, Exile, Diaspora, and Transnational Movements of the Crimean Tatars

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

This chapter will examine the long-distance nationalism that emerged among the Crimean Tatar diaspora in Turkey at the beginning of the twentieth century. Even the declaration of the first Crimean Tatar Republic was largely prepared in Turkey, utilizing resources of the host land. The first mini-case corresponds to the émigré movement organized in Turkey and Europe after the Bolsheviks took over Crimea, and its particular influential activity during the Second World War in saving lives. The second mini-case concerns the relative stagnation of the émigré movement between 1945 and 1980 due to shrinking political and discursive opportunities, and the inability to construct appealing and effective frames. The third mini-case marks the rejuvenation of the Crimean Tatar diaspora in 1980 as participation level and range of activities proliferate. The revival can be explained with openings in the political sphere of Turkey and the Soviet Union and new interpretations of diaspora as having the capacity to play a political role in the homeland’s future, forming diaspora nationalism , and even attempting to form a transnational nation.

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Vorheriges Kapitel Crimean Tatar Community in Romania (1900–): From Exile to Diaspora Nationalism

Nächstes Kapitel Crimean Tatar Community in the United States (1960–): From Émigré to Diaspora Nationalism

Most associations have the ethnonym “Crimean Turkish” in their titles (Kırım Türkleri Kültür ve Yardımlaşma Cemiyeti).

Recently, Crimean Tatars in Polatlı constructed Şekerevler, an apartment building bloc for primarily Tatar families in order to live together while maintaining their traditional ties in an urban envirinment. A similar project was proposed by Fikret Yurter in Long Island in the 1970s. (Interview with author, Long Island, 24 April 2009.)

Some of these teachers were Yusuf Ziya, Ömer Sami (Arbatlı), Ethem Feyzi (Gözaydın), Şevki (Bektöre), and Fevzi (Altuğ).

Cafer Seydahmet represented the right wing of National Party (Williams, 2015, 64). The National Party activities were conducted under National Center, initially linked to Promethean League after 1926. Another group of nationalists including Seit-Celil Hattat, Bekir Çobanzade and Ahmet Özenbaşlı also claimed to represent National Party in Crimea, which went under the ground after 1920, while the former member from leftist wing of the National Party, Veli İbrahimov became the Head of Crimean ASSR in line with Bolsheviks’ korenizatsiia policy (Khayali, 2009).

Members of the Crimean Students Association included Abdülhakim Hilmi, Alimseyit Cemil, Abdürrahim “Sukuti”, Abdi Zekai Tölev, Hamdi Bekirzade, Abdullah Velit, Yakup Seytabdullah “Kerçi,” and Habibullah Temircan Odabaş. Members of the Fatherland Society included Çelebi Cihan, Cafer Seydahmet, Yakup Kerçi, and Ahmet Şükrü.

The declaration of the organization was published in İkdam on 23 March 1918. The founders of the association were Osman Kemal, Bekirzade Hamdi, Mahmut Ekrem, Şevki Bektöre, Bekir Muhittin, Feyzi, Sudi, Nurettin Hüsamettin, and Mehmet Kahraman (Kırımer, 1993, 312). This organization later took the name Crimea and Kazan Aid Association (Kırım ve Kazan Cemiyet-i Hayriyesi).

He returned to Europe after two months and continued his efforts to find relief from international organizations and various states. During the Lausanne Conference in 1922, he lobbied for both Crimea and Turkey (Kırımlı, 2003, 56).

The major pan-Turkist association, Türk Ocakları, was closed in 1927, and its journal Türk Yurdu also ended its publication in 1931. Renown pan-Turkists from the Russian Empire such as Zeki Velidi Togan were insulted in the First Turkish Historical Congress (1932), while those “‘Turkists’ that emphasized an Anatolia-focused Turkish nationalism” such as Ziya Gökalp increased their influence (Kushner, 1997, 226). For Atatürk, “Pan-Turkism carried with it the danger of overstretched commitments to distant lands and what was more, it could annoy friendly Soviet Russia” (Kushner, 1997, 226). Publication of various émigré journals was banned in the beginning of the 1930s, and by 1935, Emel was prohibited to be imported from Romania to Turkey. Landau points out that “[D]uring the first two decades of the Republic, pan-Turk periodicals published … in Turkey prudently kept to the cultural level…” (Landau, 1995, 80) See also Hostler (1957) and Atmaca (2020).

The local pan-Turkists of Turkey engaged in pan-Turkist activity in Turkey during the Second World War. Unlike pan-Turkist émigrés, Turkish pan-Turkists were influenced by Hitler to develop an ultra-nationalist and fascist ideology. For a brief period, both pan-Turkist groups were tolerated by the Turkish government in case Germany wins and the First World War plans of Turkish expansion in the Soviet-dominated Turko-Muslim areas can be revived. The failure of Hitler brought persecution of all pan-Turkists in Turkey, including émigrés. Émigré nationalists such as Cafer Seydahmet Kırımer were also prosecuted although Kırımer was openly objected by Hitler because of his friendship with Marshall Pilsudski of occupied Poland.

12,000 Tatars lived in Belarus, Lithuania, and Poland after the First World War. In 1925, the Crimean Tatars in Poland organized a conference in Vilnius, founded a muftiate for their religious affairs, and elected Doctor Yakup Sinkiewicz as mufti. They also established the governing committee for Cultural and Educational Society of Tatars of Poland. A national museum was founded in 1929; a national archive was founded in 1931. A youth association was founded in 1936 and began to teach folk dances and songs in 20 localities Tatar lived. They published several journals and books on their history in the 1930s. They joined the Polish army as a separate “Tatar battalion” in 1936, which was destroyed during the Second World War. The number of Tatars in Poland was 6000 after WWII and they lived in Bialistok, Vilno, Novogredek, and Polesie districts (M.Y. 1962, 11–15).

These were 1.2 million Muslim or Caucasian captives in 1942. These legions are estimated to be composed of 275,000 to 350,000 of soldiers (Altschtadt, 1992, 156–157). In 1944, the number of soldiers increased (von zur Mühlen, 1984, 55). Almost all POWs volunteered to escape the camps where death rate ranged from 30 to 95% (Altschtadt, 1992, 157; von zur Mühlen, 1984, 57), but not all POWs were found sufficiently fit to join. Although non-Germans can be officers in these legions, they have no authority over Germans of the lower rank. The non-Germans had special signs on their uniforms to distinguish them from German soldiers (von zur Mühlen, 1984, 54).

Ostarbeiter were to compensate the factory and farm workforce in Germany and Austria after the conscription of native German workers. Some of the Crimean Tatar Ostarbeiter formed the Arbeitsfront which constructed roads, were used in fires and emergencies, removed the wounded and dead bodies under the bombed buildings, and carried the important documents to safer areas (Fevzi Yurter, 2003, 233).

The Soviet Union declared a general amnesty in 1955, but people continued to be tried for betrayal until the 1970s (von zur Mühlen, 1984, 231–232).

Neşe Sarısoy Karatay documented the plight of Crimean Tatar and other Soviet Muslim POWs, Ostarbeiter, and refugees through oral history interviews with living members (Karatay, Neşe Sarısoy. 2011. Gamalı Haç ve Kızıl Yıldız Arasında Türkler. İstanbul: Sinemis Yayınları). Zafer Karatay and Neşe S. Karatay made a documentary titled Gamalı Haç ve Kızıl Yıldız Arasında [Between Swastika and Red Star] featuring the living witnesses of this tragedy sponsored by TRT İstanbul Televizyonu in 2005.

In 1948, Anti-Bolschewistiches Block Der Nation, an anti-Russian umbrella organization was founded and received support from the British state. Americans formed Koodinationszentrum Des Anti-Bolschewistischen Kampfes (KZAK) but non-Russian groups protested the existence of Russian groups in this organization. They formed the oppositional Paris Bloc in 1952. The Paris Bloc mostly involved refugees of the First World War and the former members of the Promethean League, while KZAK involved mostly refugees from the Second World War. To force fractions to unite, the Americans stopped providing finances. This weakened these groups further (von zur Mühlen, 1984, 233–235).

Isajiw and Palij noted the same phenomenon in Ukrainain refugee experience too (Isajiw at al., 1992, 20).

The associations of Crimean Tatars were entitled as Crimean Turkish for the sake of being politically correct. The state would probably not permit “Crimean Tatar,” as Crimean Tatars were not a legally recognized ethnic identity. Members included Şevket Mangut, İsmail Hakkı Okday (28 October 1881–10 October 1977), Ali Nuri Okday, Haydar Gasprinskiy, İsmail Noyan, Reşat Hayri Örlük, Aptullah Corgunlu, Ali Uzar, Burhaneddin Güler, Cafer Gülümoğlu, Cevher Çibiş, Enver Malcan, Ejder Varansu, Fazıl Özarna, Hamza Göktay, Hasan Maytapar, İsmail Güçlü, İsmail Otar, İbrahim Otar, Kemal Çelik, Mehmet Göktay, Reşat Akçura, Reşit Türker, Selim Ortay, Turgut Teberdar, Yusuf Büyüksu, Aziz Bozgöz, and Sabri Cansever.

Federation of Turkish Immigrant and Refugee Associations (Türk Göçmen ve Mülteci Dernekleri Federasyonu) was founded in 1954 but ended in mid-1970s. The Federation was composed of associations of North Caucasian, Crimean, İdil-Ural, Azerbaijani, Turkistani, Kerkük, Cypriot, Bulgarian, and Bayr-Bucak (Syrian) ‘Turks.’ They were encouraged for complying with the state ideology through this organization. The biggest sin has been tribalism (kabilecilik)—emphasizing the distinctness of ethnic identities—because it was interpreted as dividing the great Turkish nation. This federation was not successful in any sense, and even could not form a platform among the migrants (Bezanis, 1994, 81–82).

“The émigré leaders who live in Turkey have instituted a special structure for struggling against the Soviet Union more efficiently” (Kırımer, 2003, 2, footnote 9). Note that footnotes were written by İsmail Otar. Though he had a first-hand knowledge of the matter, being a member of that structure, he cited Ablemitoğlu for this fact.

They had warm feelings for Cafer Seydahmet, who assisted them greatly in their struggle for settlement, as depicted in their card addressed to him in 1956. In his diary, Cafer Seydahmet states that he replied them pleasantly but also advised them about their conduct in Turkey (3 January 1956) (Kırımer, 2003, 97).

Members included Mehmet Muhiddin Sevdiyar, Mahmut Oktay, İsa Karaşay, Cafer Ortalan, Kemal Kuvat, Server Trupçu, Hediye Kırımman, Kemal Ortaylı, Mehmet Çokaktaş, Aziz Aktaş, and Niyazi Kırımman.

Authors included Cafer Ortalan, Mehmet Sevdiyar, Mustafa Çorbacı, and Sermet Arısoy. In the first issue of the journal, Server Kırımlı, Halil Inalcik, and Servet Arısoy contribute with articles. Kemal Kuvat, Rüstem Beşev, Halil Beşev, Mehmet Çokaktaş, Vehbi Öztekten, Nuri Akyar, İbrahim Dülber, and Raif Gence contributed money.

The role of Mehmet Sevdiyar in Crimean Tatar history, and an analysis of the great volumes he wrote on the ethnogenesis of Crimean Tatars, still awaits for further research.

Şevki Bektöre was a Crimean Tatar born in Romania and raised in Turkey, who migrated to Crimea to participate in the national struggle in 1917 and could only return to Turkey in 1957 using his former Ottoman citizenship after twenty-five years of imprisonment in the USSR (Bektöre, 1965).

Members included Aptullah Çorgunlu, Ali Uzar, Burhanettin Güler, Cafer Gülümoğlu, Cevher Çibiş, Enver Malcan, Ejder Varansu, Fazıl Özarna, Hamza Göktay, Hasan Maytapar, İsmail Güçlü, İsmail Otar, İbrahim Otar, Kemal Çelik, Mehmet Göktay, Müstecip Ülküsal, Reşat Akçura, Reşit Türker, Sabri Cansever, Selim Ortay, Turgut Teberdar, Yusuf Büyüksu, and Aziz Bozgazi.

Abdurrahman Benlioğlu, Nurettin Ağat, İsmail Hakkı, and Ali Nuri Okday also played an important part in uniting two associations (Kırımer, 2003, 53, 184).

Feyzi Yurter, Fikret Yurter’s brother, led the attempts of some refugees to prepare claims of compensation from Germany and Austria for being Ostarbeiter. However, most refugees in Turkey preferred to stay apolitical and deemphasize their past.

Emin Bektöre was born in Dobruja. He was the youngest member of Emel movement in Romania. He learned Romanian folklore at high school. He learned Crimean Tatar dances from Crimean refugees in Romania such as pharmacist Bekir. He immigrated to Turkey in 1940. Later newcoming refugees such as Halil Haksal and Cemalettin Tengiz also contributed the revival of Crimean Tatar folklore activities in Turkey. People’s Houses hosted the earlier activities until Eskişehir Crimean Association is founded in 1972 (Yalkın Bektöre, Interview by author, 26 December 2006, Eskişehir).

Istanbul Crimean Association’s young members staged Mehmet Vani Yurtsever’s “Eid Night” (“Kurban Bayramı Gecesi”) in Istanbul, Eskişehir and Polatlı and a large audience watched this play in the late 1970s (Yurtsever, 1983, 307). Note that this event brings together four different waves of immigration.

First eleven issues of Emel were published in Ankara, by Niyazi Kırımman (1911 Bulgaria-1967 Ankara), Halil Beşev (1896 Crimea-1973 Ankara), Mahmut Oktay (1912 Istanbul–1974 Ankara) in collaboration with the National Center members in Istanbul and it was financed by Kırımman. Later, Emel was transferred to Istanbul (A.K., 1978, 5–8).

As mentioned earlier, the right wing of National Party formed en émigré organization under the framework of Promethean League, called Crimean National Center.

First appearance of Cemilev was in the 90th issue of Emel in 1975. 93rd issue of Emel announced Jemilev’s martyrdom, but he turned out to be alive. The false news of his death increased the support for the Crimean Tatars, especially among the ultra-nationalists. Istanbul Ülkü Ocakları, an ultra-nationalist organization left black wreath at the USSR consulate on 6 February 1976. Ülkücüler Derneği, another ultra-nationalist organization organized a commemoration for Cemilev on 13 February 1976 in Ankara. Ahmet Demiryüce, a Turkish senator, went on five days of hunger strike. A silent protest march took place in Adana. A thousand letters were sent to the president and prime minister. Donations to Emel multiplied. Hakan Kırımlı points out that “Cemilev was introduced as a hero of the Turkishness in the 1970s. Mustafa Aga, ‘legendary outside Turk’ suited to the ultra-nationalist ideology. Mustafa Aga [Cemilev]’s so-called parka, paternoster, and boots [symbolic accessories of ultra-nationalists in the 1970s] were sold in Ünye.” (Interview Ankara).

The “Turk” instead of Tatar in the name of the Association demonstrated alignment with the identity frame of the Turkish state and frame-bridging with Crimean Tatar movement in Turkey.

I interviewed with the three members of the National Center from the older generation; however, two of them did not permit me to publish their words, reflecting the continuing tradition of utmost caution in displaying views in this generation. Nurettin Mahir Altuğ (1924–2015) permitted his name to be published. Altuğ was a lawyer and the former editor of Emel (1983), former head of Crimean Turks Aid Association (1965), and former head of Emel Kırım Vakfı.

The founders of Emel Foundation were Müstecib Ülküsal, İsmail Otar (Başkan), Nurettin Mahir Altuğ (Genel Sekreter), Safiye Nezetli, Dr. Niyazi Elitok (Muhasip-veznedar), Zafer Karatay (Başkan Vekili), Serdar Karatay, and Ünsal Aktaş ve Mükremin Şahin.

Ertuğrul Karaş, Namık Kemal Bayar, Tuncay Kalkay, Bülent Tanatar, Özgür Karahan, Timur Berk, and Serkan Sava.

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Nurten Camcı, Nur Şeker, Dilek Şahin, Oya Baydar Şahin, and Necla Kalkay played significant role in organizing women’s and youth activities.

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Titel: Crimean Tatar Community in Turkey (1908–): From Émigré to Diaspora Nationalism
verfasst von: Filiz Tutku Aydın
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Buch: Émigré, Exile, Diaspora, and Transnational Movements of the Crimean Tatars
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-74123-5

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-030-74124-2

Copyright-Jahr: 2021
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74124-2_5

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