Multilingual abstract
Introduction
Knowledge-based economy and the knowledge triangle
Economic theory and rationale for knowledge-based economy
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Creation of knowledge should take place not only at universities but also carried out by business,
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States and communities can influence their economic growth,
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Due to a path dependence, current local base of knowledge and expertise is crucial for future growth,
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Both scientific research and minor ideas developed at the workplace are important for economic growth what means that everyone can create knowledge and
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Knowledge-based growth is self-reinforcing, a proper high-growth strategy may encourage business sector to make more investment in research and development.
Building blocks of knowledge-based economy—higher education
Changing economic and social conditions have given knowledge and skills—human capital—an increasingly central role in the economic success of nations and individuals. Information and communications technology, globalisation of economic activity and the trend towards greater personal responsibility and autonomy have all changed the demand for learning. The key role of competence and knowledge in stimulating economic growth has been widely recognised by economists and others.
Modernisation of Europe’s universities involving their interlinked roles of education, research and innovation, has been acknowledged not only as a core condition for the success of the broader Lisbon Strategy, but as part of the wider move towards an increasingly global and knowledge-based economy (European Commission 2006).
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Innovation processes leading to the creation and application of new knowledge or application of existing knowledge in a novel way and
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Education and training enabling production and application of new knowledge or application of existing knowledge in a novel way.
The knowledge triangle—a policy-making instrument strengthening the EU knowledge economy
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The lack of innovation and entrepreneurial culture in research and higher education,
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A lack of investment, in particular private investment, in research and development and
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The difficulty Europe has in transforming R&D results into commercial opportunities.
Knowledge supply and demand (strengthening the vertices of the knowledge triangle) | Knowledge circulation (linkages between vertices of the knowledge triangle) | |
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Research & development | 3 % investment target | Bringing together public research institutions with private innovators |
Creation of European research area | ||
Innovation | Improvement framework condition for innovation | Creation and development of innovation poles, network and incubators |
Strengthening the European industrial base | Promotion new technological initiatives based on Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) | |
Promotion of environmental-friendly technologies | Establishment of the European Institute for Technology (EIT) | |
Education | Development and strengthening education institutions and creation new ones | Promotion of a more entrepreneurial culture |
Expansion and improvement of investment in human capital and raising the quality of education and training | Development of education responding new occupational needs, key competences and future skill requirements |
DEA methodology
DEA approach
Efficiency indices
DMU discrimination methodology
Description of variables
Indicator name | Definition | Source | |
---|---|---|---|
Input variables | Annual expenditure on public and private educational institutions per student in PPS, at tertiary level of education (ISCED 5–6), based on full-time equivalents, 2009 or closest | Annual expenditure on public and private educational institutions per student in Purchasing Power Standards (PPS), at tertiary level of education (ISCED 5–6), based on full-time equivalents | Eurostat |
Research and development personnel, by sectors of performance, 2009 or closest | Full-time equivalent (% of the labour force), business enterprise | Eurostat | |
Intersectoral mobility of researchers | IM2—Post-PhD intersectoral mobility—Share of R2-3-4 researchers who have worked as a researcher (excluding PhD) outside the university or HEI sector, in % and by panel country | MORE2 Higher Education Survey (2012) | |
Output variables | High-technology exports (% exports), 2012 | This indicator is calculated as the share of exports of all high-technology products of total exports. High technology products are defined as the sum of the following products: aerospace, computers-office machines, electronics-telecommunications, pharmacy, scientific instruments, electrical machinery, chemistry, non-electrical machinery, armament. The total exports for the EU do not include the intra-EU trade | Eurostat |
Scientific and technical publications per billion PPPS GDP, 2012 | Number of scientific and engineering articles in the following fields: physics, biology, chemistry, mathematics, clinical medicine, biomedical research, engineering and technology, and earth and space sciences | Global Innovation Index 2013 | |
SME introducing marketing/organisational innovations (% of SMEs) | Number of SMEs who introduced a new marketing innovation or organisational innovation to one of their markets | Innovation Union Scoreboard 2013 |
Empirical results
Pure technical efficiency
Output-oriented, VRS | |||
---|---|---|---|
DMU | Score | Benchmark (Lambda) | Times as a benchmark for another DMU |
Estonia
| 1.00 | Estonia (1.00) | 7 |
Portugal
| 1.00 | Portugal (1.00) | 5 |
Germany
| 1.00 | Germany (1.00) | 4 |
Slovenia
| 1.00 | Slovenia (1.00) | 3 |
Denmark
| 1.00 | Denmark (1.00) | 2 |
France
| 1.00 | France (1.00) | 2 |
Ireland
| 1.00 | Ireland (1.00) | 2 |
Sweden
| 1.00 | Sweden (1.00) | 2 |
Netherlands
| 1.00 | Netherlands (1.00) | 1 |
Romania
| 1.00 | Romania (1.00) | 1 |
Belgium | 1.00 | Belgium (1.00) | 0 |
Czech Republic | 1.00 | Czech Republic (1.00) | 0 |
Hungary | 1.00 | Hungary (1.00) | 0 |
Italy | 1.00 | Italy (1.00) | 0 |
Latvia | 1.00 | Latvia (1.00) | 0 |
Poland | 1.00 | Poland (1.00) | 0 |
United Kingdom | 1.01 | Estonia (0.34); France (0.13); Ireland (0.22); Netherlands (0.31) | 0 |
Greece | 1.04 | Estonia (0.88); Portugal (0.12) | 0 |
Finland | 1.09 | Denmark (0.31); Germany (0.14); Slovenia (0.52); Sweden (0.03) | 0 |
Austria | 1.16 | Estonia (0.10); France (0.04); Germany (0.40); Ireland (0.14); Sweden (0.31) | 0 |
Croatia | 1.23 | Estonia (0.43); Germany (0.05); Portugal (0.14); Slovenia (0.38) | 0 |
Lithuania | 1.23 | Estonia (0.68); Romania (0.32) | 0 |
Slovakia | 1.37 | Estonia (0.88); Portugal (0.12) | 0 |
Spain | 1.59 | Denmark (0.33); Germany (0.17); Portugal (0.06); Slovenia (0.43) | 0 |
Bulgaria | 2.27 | Estonia (0.92); Portugal (0.08) | 0 |
Knowledge triangle efficiency indices
Discrimination of efficient DMUs
DMU | High-technology exports (% exports) | Scientific and technical publications per billion PPPS GDP | SME introducing marketing/organisational innovations (% of SME) | Average rank by ρ
|
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Estonia | 70.11 | 62.05 | 49.44 | 1 |
Slovenia | 6.30 | 11.92 | 14.38 | 2.3 |
Portugal | 7.75 | 7.98 | 3.51 | 3 |
Germany | 4.19 | 5.46 | 7.95 | 4.3 |
Denmark | 3.29 | 6.49 | 7.91 | 4.6 |
Romania | 4.97 | 3.31 | 2.45 | 6 |
Sweden | 1.83 | 1.50 | 2.84 | 7 |
Ireland | 0.39 | 0.16 | 2.40 | 8.6 |
Netherland | 0.18 | 0.13 | 3.27 | 8.6 |
France | 0.31 | 0.23 | 1.72 | 9 |
Scale efficiency and returns to scale
DMU | Scale efficiency score | RTS | Intensity of scale inefficiency S
0
|
---|---|---|---|
Belgium | 1 | Constant | 0.00 |
Estonia | 1 | Constant | 0.00 |
France | 1 | Constant | 0.00 |
Germany | 1 | Constant | 0.00 |
Hungary | 1 | Constant | 0.00 |
Ireland | 1 | Constant | 0.00 |
Italy | 1 | Constant | 0.00 |
Romania | 1 | Constant | 0.00 |
Slovenia | 1 | Constant | 0.00 |
Lithuania | 0.98 | Decreasing | 0.08 |
Bulgaria | 0.97 | Decreasing | 0.09 |
Greece | 0.96 | Decreasing | 0.15 |
Portugal | 0.96 | Decreasing | 0.13 |
Slovakia | 0.96 | Decreasing | 0.13 |
Czech Republic | 0.91 | Decreasing | 0.11 |
Croatia | 0.89 | Decreasing | 0.05 |
Sweden | 0.87 | Decreasing | 0.13 |
Austria | 0.85 | Decreasing | 0.10 |
Spain | 0.85 | Decreasing | 0.11 |
Finland | 0.83 | Decreasing | 0.14 |
Latvia
|
0.83
|
Increasing
|
−0.10
|
United Kingdom | 0.8 | Decreasing | 0.13 |
Poland
|
0.74
|
Increasing
|
−0.09
|
Denmark | 0.72 | Decreasing |
0.24
|
Netherlands | 0.58 | Decreasing |
0.32
|