nach oben

Erschienen in:

2013 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

5. Empirical Measures of Regional Convergence

verfasst von : Dr. Stilianos Alexiadis

Erschienen in: Convergence Clubs and Spatial Externalities

Verlag: Springer Berlin Heidelberg

Einloggen

Aktivieren Sie unsere intelligente Suche, um passende Fachinhalte oder Patente zu finden.

search-config

KI-gestützte Suche

Aus

Abstract

The theoretical analysis of convergence presented thus far has examined the circumstances in which an economy converges towards an equilibrium level of output per-worker or a steady-state rate of growth. The possibility that groups of economies are likely to converge towards the same steady-state (absolute convergence) or towards different steady-states (conditional convergence) has also been examined. In discussing club convergence, the possibility of convergence towards a leading economy has also been addressed. In reality economies are not in equilibrium and are subject to all manner of shocks at different points in time. Therefore, an important question arises: ‘how is possible to test for convergence, when the steady-state is never achieved?’ The approach, in practice, is to direct empirical measures of convergence towards the process of convergence, rather than the equilibrium outcome.

Sie haben noch keine Lizenz? Dann Informieren Sie sich jetzt über unsere Produkte:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 102.000 Bücher
über 537 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Automobil + Motoren
Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
Finance + Banking
Management + Führung
Marketing + Vertrieb
Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe
Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Jetzt informieren

Springer Professional "Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 67.000 Bücher
über 390 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Automobil + Motoren
Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Jetzt informieren

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 67.000 Bücher
über 340 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Finance + Banking
Management + Führung
Marketing + Vertrieb
Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Jetzt informieren

Vorheriges Kapitel Club Convergence

Nächstes Kapitel EU-27 Regions: Absolute or Club Convergence?

Standard deviation (\( {{\sigma }_{{i,t}}} \)) is measured as \( {{\sigma }_{{i,t}}} = \sqrt {{\frac{1}{n}\sum\limits_{{i = 1}}^n {{{{\left[ {\log \left( {\frac{{{{y}_i}}}{{{{y}^{ * }}}}} \right)} \right]}}^2}} }} \), where \( \log {{y}^{ * }} \equiv \frac{1}{n}\sum\limits_{{i = 1}}^n {\log {{y}_i}} \) (Dalgaard and Vastrup 2001). σ-convergence is signified when \( {{\sigma }_{{i,T}}}\ <\ {{\sigma }_{{i,0}}} \) or more generally, when \( {{\sigma }_{{i,t}}} \to 0 \), as \( t \to T \), where \( T \) is a terminal time. The coefficient of variation (\( {{c}_{{i,t}}} \)) is defined as the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean (\( \mu \)):\( {{c}_{{i,t}}} = \frac{{{{\sigma }_{{i,t}}}}}{{{{\mu }_{{i,t}}}}} \)

According to the ‘Williamson’s Law’, regional disparities are expected to stronger during the early phases of an integration process and they slowdown or even reverse as this process evolves (Camagni and Capello 2010).

Fisch (1984), also, supports, and extends Williamson’s argument, as by considering regional inequalities in terms of personal incomes across the US states in comparison to the national average.

Tondl (1999) attributes this pattern to the fact that throughout the 1980s several less prosperous members have jointed the EU.

Examining σ-convergence in terms of output per-capita across the EC regions over 1980–1989, Neven and Gouyette (1995) reach similar conclusions and argue that the ‘northern’ regions are more homogenous in term of per-capita output than the regions located in the ‘south’ of Europe. Fagerberg and Verspagen (1996) aptly note that over the period 1980–1990 the gap in per capita GDP between the richest and poorest EU region is roughly the same order as the difference between Germany and a developing country, such as Costa Rica or South Africa.

An interest in convergence can also be found to the writings of ‘classical’ economists, such as Ricardo, Marx and Malthus. In particular, for Ricardo the process of growth leads to convergence due to decreasing returns in agriculture and no institutional or technological change. Conversely, Marx and Malthus argue that growth exaggerates an already established unevenness leading to divergence. A more detailed discussion can be found in Boyer (1997).

Barro and Sala-i-Martin (1995) claim that this term essentially represents the steady-state growth rate.

The error term is assumed have zero mean and constant variance (uncorrelated with the initial level of output per-worker).

The time at which output per-worker (\( {{y}_{{i,t}}} \)) is halfway between the value during the initial year and the ‘steady-state’ (\( {{y}^{*}} \)) satisfies the condition \( {{e}^{{ - \beta t}}} = \tfrac{1}{2} \). As T gets larger, the effect of the initial level of output per worker tends to decline.

The convergence coefficient is bounded to the sign of β, implied by \( \log ({{y}_{{i,t}}}) = (1 - {{e}^{{ - \beta t}}})\log ({{y}^{*}}) + {{e}^{{ - \beta t}}}\log ({{y}_{{i,0}}}) \).

Reconciling \( {{b}_1} \) with the expression in Eq. 5.3 involves substitution of the absolute value of \( {{b}_1} \) into the expression for the rate of convergence (β).

A notable example of a ‘growth miracle’ consists of the Japanese economy during the post-war era and some South East Asian economies during the 1980s and early 1990s.

Arbia et al. (2008) note the absolute convergence model can be thought as an approximation of the original Solow-Swan model.

It is worthy of note that Persson (1997) identifies a weakness of most empirical studies concerning regional convergence in that data on regional per-capita income or output are often of poor quality and not adjusted for differences in the cost of living across regions; a technique which would permit comparisons of ‘real’ living standards across observational units. When such an adjustment is made, Persson (1997) finds stronger and more robust evidence on regional convergence across Swedish counties. The estimated convergence coefficient indicates a rate of 4% per year, which is almost double that obtained using unadjusted data (2.3%). This conclusion does tend to suggest that such ‘real’ comparisons are important.

Other studies use the level of regional income (e.g. Doyle and O’Leary 1999; Cheshire and Magrini 2000, regional wages (Mora et al. 2005), regional welfare inequalities (e.g. Álvarez-Garcia et al. 2004; Ezcurra et al. 2005) or specific aspects of regional economies, such as manufacturing (e.g. Pascual and Westermann 2002; Gugler and Pfaffermayr 2004), regional agriculture productivity (e.g. Alexiadis and Alexandrakis 2008) and the wages in the agricultural sector (Tavernier and Temel 1997). Bassino (2006) examines σ and β convergence in terms of the height and health stature of the population across the prefectures of Japan.

See also Quah (1993), Bliss (1999, 2000), Cannon and Duck (2000).

For a more detailed analysis of the relation between β and σ-convergence, see Furceri (2005).

Sala-i-Martin (1996a) claims that the conditional convergence and the absolute convergence hypotheses coincide, only if economies have the same steady-state. Furthermore, he claims that if the study of convergence is restricted to selected sets of economies, then the hypothesis of similar steady-states is apparent.

Martin and Sunley (1998) propose an alternative way to test for conditional convergence. According to their method, the analysis of convergence is restricted to sets of economies for which the assumption of similar structural characteristics or ‘fundamentals’ is not unrealistic. Thus, similar economies (countries or regions) should exhibit absolute β-convergence.

Button and Pentecost (1995), for example, use the share of agriculture in order to capture two factors. First, the differences in the composition and the structure of economic activities across the EU regions and second the impact of transfer payment through the CAP.

Development policies have become after the CAP the second largest policy area in the EU. In budgetary terms, development policies have grown from a mere 10% of the European Community’s budget and 0.09% of the EU-15 in 1980 to more than one-third of the budget and about 0.37% of the EU GDP, on average, in the period 1988–2001.

Early studies on spatial econometrics include Douglas-Carrol (1955), Fisher (1971), Hordijk (1974), Paelnick (1978), Steinnes (1980), Bennett and Hordijk (1986). For a more updated analysis of spatial econometrics see Kelejian and Prucha (2002), Dubin (2003), Saaverda (2003) and Arbia (2006).

The studies by Bernat (1996), Novell and Viladecans-Marsal (1999), Beardsell and Henderson (1999) are also relevant, although they refer to a context other than regional convergence. For a more detailed review on the empirics of spatial growth and convergence, see Fingleton (2000), Rey and Janikas (2005), Abreu et al. (2005).

\( u\sim N(0,{{\sigma }^2}I) \). For a more detailed analysis of the econometric treatment of spatial error terms see Anselin and Moreno (2003).

The spatial lag model can be written equivalently as \( {{{\mathbf{g}}}_{{\mathbf{i}}}} = {{({\mathbf{I}} - \rho {\mathbf{W}})}^{{ - 1}}}(b{{{\mathbf{X}}}_i} + {{\varepsilon }_i}) \), where \( {{{\mathbf{X}}}_i} \) is an \( (n\; \times \;2) \) vector containing the constant term and the observations of the initial per-capita income. Given that \( {{({\mathbf{I}} - \rho {\mathbf{W}})}^{{ - 1}}} = {\mathbf{I}} + \rho W + {{\rho }^2}{{W}^2} + {{\rho }^3}{{W}^3} + \ldots \), then the growth rate in a region is affected by a marginal change in the explanatory variable in this region and by marginal changes in the explanatory variables in the remaining regions.

There is also an alternative approach using Bayesian methods (e.g. Ertur et al. 2007; Arbia et al. 2008). This method tackles with problems due to heteroscedasticity and outliers from ‘enclave effects’, i.e. where a particular observation exhibits divergent behaviour from nearby observations.

One way to avoid this problem is by estimating a stochastic kernel, which can be regarded as a continuous version of the transition probability matrix. Nevertheless, Neven and Gouyette (1995) show that using the measures of σ-convergence (e.g. coefficient of variation), β-convergence and Markov-chain (movements-matrix) produce consistent results.

It is interesting to note that these conclusions are already familiar to development economists. Indeed, according to Nelson (1960) and Leibenstein (1957) some poor economies are ‘stuck’ in a ‘low level equilibrium’ (the poor ‘club’) or ‘poverty trap’ and a ‘big push’ is required in order to achieve high levels of per-capita income. Moreover, Nelson (1956) argues that even if production techniques are not improved and even in the absence of a massive investment, the ‘trap’ may still be escaped if the socio-political environment is favourable. A similar argument can be found in Folloni (2009).

The study by Leonida et al. (2003) employs the quadratic specification in the context of Italian regions, but does not addresses the issue of a convergence club directly.

Several studies (e.g. Soukiazis and Castro 2005; Badinger et al. 2004; Evans and Karras 1996a; Lee et al. 1998) implement panel data, which allow for time-varying and country-specific steady states.

There have also been studies using time-series data on regional employment or unemployment. See for example Baddeley et al. (1998), Fagerberg et al. (1996), Martin and Tyler (2000), Muscatelli and Tirelli (2001), Gray (2004). In this context, the Error-Correction-Model (ECM) is a useful econometric tool. See for example Martin (1997), Gray (2005), Alexiadis and Eleftheriou (2010), among others.

The approach to cointegration and the unit root hypothesis has been developed by Dickey and Fuller (1979, 1981), Engle and Granger (1987). For a more detailed review of the associated econometric test see Lee and Mosi (1996), Pesaran and Smith (1995), Lopez (1997).

Nahar and Inder (2002) use the following example. Suppose that the difference in income between two economies, \( {{y}_{{i,t}}} - {{y}_{{j,t}}} \), is a non-stationary process and is represented by \( {{y}_{{i,t}}} - {{y}_{{j,t}}} = \frac{\theta }{t} + {{u}_t} \) in which \( E({{u}_t}) = 0 \)and \( {{u}_i} \) is a stationary process. As \( t \to \infty \), then \( \frac{\theta }{t} \to 0 \) and \( {{y}_{{i,t}}} - {{y}_{{j,t}}} \) is also converging since \( \mathop{{\lim }}\limits_{{k \to \infty }} E({{y}_{{i,t + k}}} - {{y}_{{j,t + k}}}|{{I}_t}) = 0 \).

Abler D, Das J (1998) The determinants of the speed of convergence: the case of India. Appl Econ 30(12):1595–1602CrossRef

Abramovitz M (1986) Catching up, forging ahead and falling behind. J Econ Hist 46(2):385–406CrossRef

Abreu M, de Groot H, Florax R (2005) Space and growth: a survey of empirical evidence and methods. Région et Développement 21:12–43

Albelo C (1999) Complementarity between physical and human capital and speed of convergence. Econ Lett 64(3):357–361CrossRef

Alexiadis S, Alexandrakis A (2008) "Threshold conditions" and regional convergence in European agriculture. Int J Econ Sci Appl Res 1(2):13–37

Alexiadis S, Eleftheriou K (2010) A note on the morphology of regional unemployment in Greece. Econ Bull 30(4):2779–2786

Alexiadis S, Tomkins J (2004) Convergence clubs in the regions of Greece. Appl Econ Lett 11(6):387–391CrossRef

Álvarez-Garcia S, Prieto-Rodriguez J, Salas R (2004) The evolution of income inequality in the European Union during the period 1993–1996. Appl Econ 36(13):1399–1408CrossRef

Anselin L, Moreno R (2003) Properties of tests for spatial error components. Reg Sci Urban Econ 33(5):595–618CrossRef

Arbia G (2006) Spatial econometrics: statistical foundations and applications to regional convergence. Springer

Arbia G, le Gallo J, Piras G (2008) Does evidence on regional economic convergence depend on the estimation strategy? Outcomes from analysis of a set of NUTS-2 EU regions. Spatial Economic Analysis 3(2):209–224CrossRef

Armstrong H (1995a) Trends and disparities in regional GDP per-capita in the European Union, United States and Australia. European Commission Report 94/00/74/017. Brussels

Armstrong H (1995b) An appraisal of the evidence from cross–sectional analysis of the regional growth process within the European union. In: Armstrong H, Vickerman R (eds) Convergence and divergence among European regions

Ausina E, Perez F, Mas M, Goerlich F (2005) Growth and convergence profiles in the Spanish provinces. J Reg Sci 45(1):147–182CrossRef

Austin J, Schmidt J (1998) Convergence amid divergence in a region. Growth and Change 29(1):67–89CrossRef

Baddeley M, Martin R, Tayler P (1998) European regional unemployment disparities: convergence or persistence? Eur Urban Reg Stud 5(3):195–215CrossRef

Badinger H, Müller W, Tondl G (2004) Regional convergence in the European Union, 1985–1999: A spatial dynamic panel analysis. Reg Stud 38(3):241–253CrossRef

Barro R (1991) Economic growth in a cross-section of countries. Q J Econ 106(2):407–443CrossRef

Barro R (1997) Determinants of economic growth. MIT Press

Barro R, Lee J (1993) International comparisons of educational attainment. Journal of Monetary Economics 32(3):363–394CrossRef

Barro R, Sala-i-Martin X (1991) Convergence across states and regions. Brooking Papers on Economic Activity 1:107–182CrossRef

Barro R, Sala-i-Martin X (1992a) Convergence. J Pol Econ 100(2):223–251CrossRef

Barro R, Sala-i-Martin X (1992b) Regional growth and migration: A Japanese-US comparison. J Jpn Int Econ 6(4):312–346CrossRef

Barro R, Sala-i-Martin X (1995) Economic growth, 2nd edn. MIT Press

Basile R (2008) Regional economic growth in Europe: A semi parametric spatial dependence approach. Papers in Regional Science 87(4):527–544CrossRef

Bassino J-P (2006) Inequality in Japan (1892–1941): Physical stature, income and health. Econ Hum Biol 4(1):62–88CrossRef

Baumol W (1986) Productivity growth, convergence and welfare: What the long-run data show. Am Econ Rev 76(5):1072–1085

Baumol W (1988) Is entrepreneurship always productive? J Dev Plann 18:85–93

Baumol W, Wolff E (1988) Productivity growth, convergence and welfare: A reply. Am Econ Rev 78(5):1155–1159

Beardsell M, Henderson V (1999) Spatial evolution of the computer industry in the USA. Eur Econ Rev 43(2):431–456CrossRef

Ben-David D (1993) Equalising exchange, trade liberalisation and income convergence. Q J Econ 108(3):653–679CrossRef

Ben-David D (1996) Trade and convergence among countries. J Int Econ 40(3–4):279–298CrossRef

Ben-David D (1998) Convergence clubs and subsistence economies. J Dev Econ 55(1):155–171CrossRef

Ben-David D, Papell D (2000) Some evidence on the continuity of the growth process among the G7 countries. Econ Inq 38(2):320–330

Benhabib J, Spiegel M (1994) The role of human capital in economic development: Evidence from aggregate cross-country data. Journal of Monetary Economics 34(2):143–173CrossRef

Bennett R, Hordijk L (1986) Regional econometric and dynamic models. In: Mills E, Nijkamp P (eds) Handbook of regional and urban economics. pp 407–441

Benos N, Karagiannis S (2008) Convergence and economic performance in Greece: Evidence at the regional and prefecture level. Review of Urban and Regional Development Studies 20(1):52–69CrossRef

Bentzen J (2005) Testing for catching-up periods in time-series convergence. Econ Lett 88(3):323–328CrossRef

Bernard A, Durlauf S (1995) Convergence of international output. Journal of Applied Econometrics 10(2):97–108CrossRef

Bernard A, Jones C (1996b) Productivity across industries and countries: Time series theory and evidence. Rev Econ Stat 78(1):135–146CrossRef

Bernard A, Jones C (1996c) Productivity and convergence across US States and industries. Empirical Economics 21(1):113–135CrossRef

Bernard A, Jones C (1996d) Comparing apples to oranges: Productivity convergence measurement across industries and countries. Am Econ Rev 86(5):1216–1238

Birnie J, Hitchens D (1998) Productivity and income per-capita convergence in a peripheral European economy: the Irish experience. Reg Stud 32(3):223–234CrossRef

Bishop P, Gripaios P (2004) Earnings biases and convergence in the UK: A county level analysis. Appl Econ Lett 11(1):33–37CrossRef

Bishop P, Gripaios P (2005) Patterns of persistence and mobility in GDP per-head across GB counties. Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geographie 96(5):522–540CrossRef

Bishop P, Gripaios P (2006) Earnings convergence in UK counties: A distribution dynamics approach. Appl Econ Lett 13(1):29–33CrossRef

Bliss C (1999) Galton’s Fallacy and economic convergence. Oxford Economic Papers 51(1):4–14CrossRef

Bliss C (2000) Galton’s Fallacy and economic convergence: A reply to Cannon and Duck. Oxford Economic Papers 52(2):420–422CrossRef

Boldrin M, Rustichini A (1994) Growth and indeterminacy in dynamic models with externalities. Econometrica 62(2):323–342CrossRef

Boltho A, Carlin W, Scaramozzino P (1999) Will East Germany become a new Mezzogiorno? In: Adams J, Pigliaru F (eds) Economic growth and change: national and regional patterns of convergence and divergence. pp 323–348

Boyer R (1997) The convergence hypothesis revisited: Globalisation but still a century of nations? In: Berger S, Dore R (eds) National diversity and capitalism. pp 29–59

Boyle G, McCarthy T (1997) A simple measure of β-convergence. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics 59(2):257–264CrossRef

Boyle G, McCarthy T (1999) Simple measures of convergence in per-capita GDP: A note on some further international evidence. Appl Econ Lett 6(6):343–347CrossRef

Breunig R (2001) An almost unbiased estimator of the coefficient of variation. Econ Lett 70(1):15–19CrossRef

Button K, Pentecost E (1995) Testing for convergence of the EU regional economies. Econ Inq 33(4):664–671CrossRef

Button K, Pentecost E (1999) Regional economic performance within the European union. Edward Elgar Publishing

Camagni R, Capello R (2010) Macroeconomic and territorial policies for regional competitiveness: an EU perspective. Reg Sci Pol Pract 2(1):1–19

Canaleta C, Arzoz P, Gárate M (2004) Regional economic disparities and decentralisation. Urban Stud 41(1):71–94CrossRef

Cannon E, Duck N (2000) Galton’s fallacy and economic convergence. Oxford Economic Papers 52(2):415–419CrossRef

Carlino G, de Fina R (1995) Regional income dynamics. J Urban Econ 37(1):88–106CrossRef

Carlino G, Mills L (1993) Are U.S. regional incomes converging? A time series analysis. Journal of Monetary Economics 32(2):335–346CrossRef

Carlino G, Mills L (1996a) Testing neoclassical convergence in regional incomes and earnings. Reg Sci Urban Econ 26(6):565–590CrossRef

Carlino G, Mills L (1996b) Are US regional incomes converging? Reply. Journal of Monetary Economics 38(3):599–601CrossRef

Carluer F (2005) Dynamics of Russian regional clubs: the time of divergence. Reg Stud 39(6):713–726CrossRef

Carree M, Klomp L, Thurik A (2000) Productivity convergence in OECD manufacturing industries. Econ Lett 66(3):337–345CrossRef

Carrington A (2003) A Divided Europe? Regional convergence and neighbourhood spillover effects. Kyklos 56(3):381–394CrossRef

Cashin P (1995) Testing for convergence across the seven colonies of Australasia: 1861–1991. Economic Record 71(213):132–144

Cashin P, Strappazzon L (1998) Disparities in Australian regional incomes: are they widening or narrowing? Australian Economic Review 31(1):3–26CrossRef

Chatterji M (1992) Convergence clubs and endogenous growth. Oxford Review of Economic Policy 8(4):57–69CrossRef

Chatterji M, Dewhurst H (1996) Convergence clubs and relative economic performance in Great Britain: 1977–1991. Reg Stud 30(1):31–40CrossRef

Cheshire P, Magrini S (2000) Endogenous processes in European regional growth: convergence and policy. Growth and Change 31(4):455–479CrossRef

Chiquiar D (2005) Why Mexico’s regional income convergence broke down? J Dev Econ 77(1):257–275CrossRef

Coulombe S (2000) New evidence of convergence across Canadian provinces: the role of urbanisation. Reg Stud 38(8):713–725CrossRef

Coulombe S, Lee F (1995) Convergence across Canadian Provinces, 1961 to 1991. Can J Econ 28(4a):886–898CrossRef

Cowell F (1995) Measuring inequality. London School of Economics

Crikfield J, Panggabean M (1995) Growth and convergence in US cities. J Urban Econ 38(2):138–165CrossRef

Cuadrado-Roura J, Garcia-Greciano B, Raymond J (1999) Regional convergence in productivity and productive structure: the Spanish case. Int Reg Sci Rev 22(1):35–53CrossRef

Cunado J, Gil-Alana L, de Gracia F (2003) Empirical evidence on real convergence in some OECD Countries. Appl Econ Lett 10(3):173–176CrossRef

Dalgaard C, Vastrup J (2001) On the measurement of σ-convergence. Econ Lett 70(2):283–287CrossRef

Datta A (2003) Time-series tests of convergence and transitional dynamics. Econ Lett 81(2):233–240CrossRef

De la Fuente A (2002) On the sources of convergence: a closer look at the Spanish regions. Eur Econ Rev 46(3):569–599CrossRef

De la Fuente A, Vives X (1995) Infrastructure and education as instruments of regional policy: evidence from Spain. Economic Policy 10(20):11–51CrossRef

De Long B (1988) Productivity growth, convergence and welfare: comment. Am Econ Rev 78(5):1138–1154

Den Haan W (1995) Convergence in stochastic growth models: the importance of understanding why income levels differ. Journal of Monetary Economics 35(1):65–82CrossRef

Dewhurst J (1998) Convergence and divergence in regional household incomes per-head in the United Kingdom, 1984–93. Appl Econ 30(1):31–35CrossRef

Dickey D, Fuller W (1979) Distribution of the estimators for autoregressive time series with a unit root. J Am Stat Assoc 74(366):427–431CrossRef

Dickey D, Fuller W (1981) Likelihood ratio statistics for autoregressive time series with a unit root. Econometrica 49(4):1057–1072CrossRef

Dobkins L, Ioannidis Y (2001) Spatial interaction among US Cities: 1900–1990. Reg Sci Urban Econ 31(6):701–731CrossRef

Dobson S, Ramlogan C (2002) Convergence and divergence in Latin America, 1970–1998. Appl Econ 34(4):465–470CrossRef

Dollar D (1991) Convergence of South Korean productivity on West German levels, 1966–78. World Dev 19(2–3):263–273CrossRef

Douglas-Carrol J (1955) Spatial interaction and the urban–metropolitan regional description. Papers in Regional Science 1:59–73

Dowrick S, Nguyen D (1989) OECD comparative economic growth 1950–85: catch-up and convergence. Am Econ Rev 79(5):1010–1030

Doyle E, O’Leary E (1999) The role of structural change in labour productivity convergence among European Union countries: 1970–1990. J Econ Stud 26(2):10–12CrossRef

Drennan M, Lobo J (1999) A simple test for convergence of metropolitan income in the US. J Urban Econ 46(3):350–359CrossRef

Drennan M, Lobo J, Strumsky D (2004) Unit-root tests of σ income convergence across US metropolitan areas. J Econ Geogr 4(5):583–595CrossRef

Dubin R (2003) Robustness of spatial autocorrelation specifications: some simple Monte Carlo evidence. J Reg Sci 43(2):221–248CrossRef

Dunford M (1993) Regional disparities in the European Community: evidence from the REGIO databank. Reg Stud 27(8):727–743CrossRef

Dunford M (1996) Disparities in employment, productivity and output in the EU: the roles of labour market governance and welfare regimes. Reg Stud 30(4):339–357CrossRef

Dunford M, Smith A (2000) Catching-up or falling behind? Economic performance and regional trajectories in the New Europe. Economic Geography 76(2):169–195CrossRef

Easterlin R (1958) Long term potential income changes: some suggested factors. Papers and Proceedings of the Regional Science Association 2:313–325

Engle R, Granger C (1987) Cointegration and error–correction: representation, estimation and testing. Econometrica 55(2):251–276CrossRef

Ertur C, Koch W (2005) Une analyse exploratoire des disparités régionales dans l’Europe elargie. Région et Développement 21:65–92

Ertur C, Le Gallo J, Le Sage J (2007) Local versus global convergence in Europe: a Bayesian spatial economic approach. Review of Regional Studies 37(1):82–108

Esteban J (2000) Regional convergence in Europe and the industry mix: a shift-share analysis. Reg Sci Urban Econ 30(3):353–364CrossRef

Evans P (1997) How fast do economies converge? Rev Econ Stat 79(2):219–225CrossRef

Evans P, Karras G (1993) Do standards of living converge? Some cross-country evidence. Econ Lett 43(2):149–155CrossRef

Evans P, Karras G (1996a) Convergence revisited. Journal of Monetary Economics 37(2):249–265CrossRef

Evans P, Karras G (1996b) Do economies converge? Evidence from a panel of U.S. States. Rev Econ Stat 78(3):384–388CrossRef

Ezcurra R, Rapun M (2006) Regional disparities and national development revisited: the case of Western Europe. Eur Urban Reg Stud 13(4):355–369CrossRef

Ezcurra R, Gil C, Pascual P (2005) Regional welfare disparities: the case of the European regions. Appl Econ 37(12):1423–1437CrossRef

Fagerberg J (1996) Technology and competitiveness. Oxford Review of Economic Policy 12(3):39–51CrossRef

Fagerberg J, Verspagen B (1996) Heading for divergence? Regional growth in Europe reconsidered. Journal of Common Market Studies 34(3):431–448CrossRef

Fan CAnd, Casetti E (1994) The spatial and temporal dynamics of US regional income inequality, 1950–1989. Ann Reg Sci 28(2):177–196CrossRef

Ferreira A (2000) Convergence in Brazil: recent trends and long-run prospects. Appl Econ 32(4):479–489CrossRef

Feve P, lePen Y (2000) On modelling convergence clubs. Appl Econ Lett 7(5):311–314CrossRef

Fingleton B (1997) Specification and testing of Markov chain models: an application to convergence in the European Union. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics 59(3):385–403CrossRef

Fingleton B (2000) Spatial econometrics, economic geography, dynamics and equilibrium: a third way. Environment and Planning A 32(8):1481–1498CrossRef

Fingleton B (2001) Theoretical economic geography and spatial econometrics: dynamic perspectives. J Econ Geogr 1(2):201–225CrossRef

Fisch O (1984) Regional income inequality and economic development. Reg Sci Urban Econ 14(1):89–111CrossRef

Fischer M, Stirböck C (2006) Pan-European regional income growth and club convergence. Ann Reg Sci 40(4):693–721CrossRef

Fischer M, Stumpner P (2008) Income distribution and cross-region convergence in Europe: spatial filtering and novel stochastic Kernel representations. J Geogr Syst 10(2):109–139CrossRef

Fisher W (1971) Econometric estimation with spatial dependence. Regional and Urban Economics 1(1):19–40CrossRef

Folloni G (2009) A model of local development. In: Fratesi U, Senn L (eds) Growth and innovation of competitive regions: the role of internal and external connections. pp 45–58

Formby J, Smith W, Zheng B (1999) The coefficient of variation, stochastic dominance and inequality: a new interpretation. Econ Lett 62(3):319–323CrossRef

Friedman M (1992) Do old fallacies ever die? J Econ Lit 30(4):2129–2132

Funke M, Strulik H (1999) Regional growth in West Germany: convergence or divergence. Econ Model 16(4):489–502CrossRef

Furceri D (2005) β and σ-convergence: a mathematical relation of causality. Econ Lett 89(2):212–215CrossRef

Gerschenkron A (1962) Economic backwardness in historical perspective. Bellknap Press

Gezici F, Hewings G (2004) Regional convergence and the economic performance of peripheral areas in Turkey. Review of Urban and Regional Development Studies 16(2):113–132CrossRef

Goddard J, Wilson J (2001) Cross sectional and panel estimation of convergence. Econ Lett 70(3):327–333CrossRef

Gomulka S (1971) Inventive activity, diffusion and the stages of economic growth, institute of economics. Aarhus, Denmark

Gouyette C, Perelman S (1997) Productivity convergence in OECD industries. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics 8(3):279–295CrossRef

Gray D (2004) Persistent regional unemployment differentials revisited. Reg Stud 38(2):167–176CrossRef

Gray D (2005) An examination of regional interaction and super-regions in Britain: an error-correction model approach. Reg Stud 39(5):619–632CrossRef

Greasley D, Oxley L (1997) Time-series based tests of the convergence hypothesis: some positive results. Econ Lett 56(2):143–147CrossRef

Gripaios P, Bishop P, Keast S (2000) Differences in GDP per-head in GB counties: some suggested explanations. Appl Econ 32(9):1161–1167CrossRef

Gugler K, Pfaffermayr M (2004) Convergence in structure and productivity in European manufacturing? Ger Econ Rev 5(1):61–79CrossRef

Hanna F (1959) State income differentials, 1919–54. Duke University Press

Heston A, Summers R (1984) Improved international comparisons of real product and its composition, 1950–1980. Review of Income and Wealth 30(2):207–262CrossRef

Heston A, Summers R (1988) A new set of international comparisons of real product and price levels: estimates for 130 countries, 1950–1980. Review of Income and Wealth 34(1):1–26CrossRef

Hobijin B, Frances P (2000) Asymptotically perfect and relative convergence of productivity. Journal of Applied Econometrics 15(1):59–81CrossRef

Hofer H, Wörgötter A (1997) Regional per-capita income convergence in Austria. Reg Stud 31(1):1–12CrossRef

Hordijk L (1974) Spatial correlation in the disturbances of a linear interregional model. Regional and Urban Economics 4(2):117–140CrossRef

Hossain F, Chung P (1999) Long-run implications of neoclassical growth models: empirical evidence from Australia, New Zealand, South Korea and Taiwan. Appl Econ 31(9):1073–1082CrossRef

Johnson P (2000) A non-parametric analysis of income convergence across the US States. Econ Lett 69(2):219–223CrossRef

Kakamu K, Fukushige M (2006) Productivity convergence of manufacturing industries in Japanese MEA. Appl Econ Lett 13(10):649–653CrossRef

Kane R (2001) Investigating convergence of the U.S. regions: a time-series analysis. J Reg Anal Policy 31(1):1–22

Kang S, Lee M (2005) Q-convergence with interquartile ranges. Journal of Economic Dynamics & Control 29(10):1785–1806CrossRef

Kangasharju A (1999) Relative economic performance in Finland: regional convergence, 1934–1993. Reg Stud 33(3):207–217CrossRef

Kelejian H, Prucha I (2002) 2SLS and OLS in a spatial autoregressive model with equal spatial weights. Reg Sci Urban Econ 32(6):691–707CrossRef

Keller W (2000) From Socialist to Mezzogiorno? Lessons on the role of technical change from East Germany’s post-World War II growth performance. J Dev Econ 63(2):485–514CrossRef

Kuznets S (1955) Economic growth and income inequality. Am Econ Rev 45(1):1–28

Kuznets S (1964) Modern economic growth. Yale University

Lall S, Yilmaz S (2001) Regional economic convergence: do policy instruments make a difference? Ann Reg Sci 35(1):153–166CrossRef

Le Gallo J, Dall’erba S (2008) Spatial and sectoral productivity convergence between European regions, 1975–200. Papers in Regional Science 87(4):505–525CrossRef

Lee J, Mossi D (1996) On improvements of Phillips-Perron unit-Root tests using optimal bandwidth estimates. Appl Econ Lett 3(3):197–200CrossRef

Lee M, Longmire R, Mátyás L, Harris M (1998) Growth convergence: some panel data evidence. Appl Econ 30(7):907–912CrossRef

Leibenstein H (1957) Economic backwardness and economic growth. Wiley

Leonida L, Petraglia C, Murillo-Zamoranos L (2003) Total factor productivity and the convergence hypothesis in the Italian regions. Appl Econ 36(19):2187–2193CrossRef

Levine R, Renelt D (1992) A Sensitivity analysis of cross-country growth regressions. Am Econ Rev 82(4):942–963

Lichtenberg F (1994) Testing the convergence hypothesis. Rev Econ Stat 76(3):576–579CrossRef

Linden M (2002) Trend model testing of growth convergence in OECD countries, 1946–1997. Appl Econ 34(2):133–142CrossRef

Loewy M, Papell D (1996) Are U.S. regional incomes converging? Some further evidence. Journal of Monetary Economics 38(3):587–598CrossRef

Lopez J (1997) The power of the ADF tests. Econ Lett 57(1):5–10CrossRef

Lopez-Bazo E, Vaya E, Artis M (2004) Regional externalities and growth: evidence from European Regions. J Reg Sci 44(1):43–73CrossRef

Maddison A (1982) Phases of capitalist development. Oxford University Press

Mallick R, Carayannis E (1994) Regional economic convergence in Mexico: an analysis by industry. Growth and Change 25(3):325–334CrossRef

Mankiw N (1995) The growth of nations. Brooking Papers on Economic Activity 1:276–326

Mankiw N, Romer D, Weil N (1992) A contribution to the empirics of economic growth. Q J Econ 107(2):407–438CrossRef

Marchante A, Ortega B (2006) Quality of life and economic convergence across Spanish regions, 1980–2001. Reg Stud 40(5):471–484CrossRef

Martin R (1997) Regional unemployment disparities and their dynamics. Reg Stud 31(3):237–252CrossRef

Martin R (2001) EMU versus the regions? Regional convergence and divergence in Euroland. J Econ Geogr 1(1):51–80CrossRef

Martin R, Sunley P (1998) Slow convergence? New endogenous growth theory and regional development. Economic Geography 74(3):201–227CrossRef

Martin R, Tyler P (2000) Regional employment evolutions in the European Union: a preliminary analysis. Reg Stud 34(7):601–616CrossRef

Mauro L (2004) The macroeconomics of Italy: a regional perspective. J Policy Model 26(8–9):927–944CrossRef

Mauro L, Podrecca E (1994) The case of Italian regions: convergence or dualism? Economic Notes 24(3):447–472

Maurseth P (2001) Convergence, geography and technology. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics 12(3):247–276CrossRef

McGuinness S, Sheehan M (1998) Regional convergence in the UK, 1970–1995. Appl Econ Lett 5(10):653–658CrossRef

Mila T, Marimon R (1999) Regional integration and public investment in Spain. In: Adams J, Pigliaru F (eds) Economic growth and change: national and regional patterns of convergence and divergence. pp 349–416

Miller S (1996) A note on cross-country growth regressions. Appl Econ 28(8):1019–1026CrossRef

Mora T, López-Tamayo J, Sariñach J (2005) Are wages and productivity converging simultaneously in Euro-Area countries? Appl Econ 37(17):2001–2008CrossRef

Mulder P, de Groot H (2007) Sectoral-energy and labour - productivity convergence. Environment and Recourse Economies 36(1):85–112CrossRef

Muscatelli A, Tirelli P (2001) Unemployment and growth: some empirical evidence from structural time series models. Appl Econ 33(8):1083–1088CrossRef

Nahar S, Inder B (2002) Testing convergence in economic growth for OECD countries. Appl Econ 34(16):2011–2022CrossRef

Nelson R (1956) A theory of low-level equilibrium trap in underdeveloped economies. Am Econ Rev 46(5):894–908

Nelson R (1960) Growth models and the escape from the equilibrium trap: the case of Japan. Econ Dev Cult Change 8(4):378–388CrossRef

Neven D, Gouyette C (1995) Regional convergence in the European Community. Journal of Common Market Studies 33(1):47–65CrossRef

O’Leary E (1997) The convergence performance of Ireland among EU Countries: 1960 to 1990. J Econ Stud 24(1–2):43–58CrossRef

O’Leary E (2001) Convergence of living standards among Irish regions: the roles of productivity, profit outflows and demography, 1960–1996. Reg Stud 35(3):197–205

Oxley L, Greasley D (1995) A time-series perspective on convergence: Australia, UK and USA since 1870. Economic Record 71(214):259–269CrossRef

Oxley L, Greasley D (1999) A Nordic convergence club. Appl Econ Lett 6(3):157–160CrossRef

Paci R (1997) More similar and less equal: economic growth in the European Regions. Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv 133(4):609–634CrossRef

Paelnick J (1978) Spatial econometrics. Econ Lett 1(1):59–63CrossRef

Partridge M (2005) Does income distribution affect US state economic growth? J Reg Sci 45(2):363–394CrossRef

Pascual A, Westermann F (2002) Productivity convergence in European manufacturing. Rev Int Econ 10(2):313–323CrossRef

Pekkala S (2000) Aggregate economic fluctuations and regional convergence: the Finnish case 1988–1995. Appl Econ 32(2):211–219CrossRef

Persson J (1997) Convergence across the Swedish counties, 1911–1993. Eur Econ Rev 41(9):1835–1852CrossRef

Pesaran H, Smith R (1995) Estimating long-run relationships from dynamic heterogeneous panels. Journal of Econometrics 68(1):79–113CrossRef

Petracos G, Artelaris P (2009) European regional convergence revisited: a weighted least squares approach. Growth and Change 40(2):314–331CrossRef

Proietti T (2005) Convergence in Italian regional per-capita GDP. Appl Econ 37(5):497–506CrossRef

Quah D (1993a) Galton’s fallacy and tests of the convergence hypothesis. Scand J Econ 95(4):427–443CrossRef

Quah D (1993b) Empirical cross-section dynamics in economic growth. Eur Econ Rev 37(2–3):426–434CrossRef

Quah D (1996a) Regional convergence clusters in Europe. Eur Econ Rev 40(3–5):951–958CrossRef

Quah D (1996b) Empirics for economic growth and convergence. Eur Econ Rev 40(6):1353–1376CrossRef

Quah D (1996c) Twin peaks: growth and convergence in models of distribution dynamics. Econ J 106(437):1045–1055CrossRef

Quah D (1996d) Aggregate and regional disaggregate fluctuations. Empirical Economics 21(1):137–159CrossRef

Quah D (1997) Empirics for growth and distribution: polarisation, stratification and convergence clubs. J Econ Growth 2(1):27–59CrossRef

Rey S, Janikas M (2005) Regional convergence, inequality and space. J Econ Geogr 5(2):155–176CrossRef

Rey S, Montouri B (1999) US regional income convergence: a spatial econometric perspective. Reg Stud 33(2):143–156CrossRef

Richardson H (1973c) Elements of regional economics. Penguin

Rietveld P (1991) A note on interregional versus intraregional inequality. Reg Sci Urban Econ 21(4):627–637CrossRef

Roberts C (1979) Interregional per-capita income differentials and convergence: 1880–1950. J Econ Hist 39(1):101–112CrossRef

Roberts M (2004) The growth performances of the GB counties: some new empirical evidence for 1977–1993. Reg Stud 38(2):149–165CrossRef

Rodríguez-Pose A, Fratesi U (2004) Between development and social policies: the impact of European structural funds in Objective-1 regions. Reg Stud 38(1):97–113CrossRef

Romer D (1996) Advanced macroeconomics. McGraw-Hill

Rostow W (1960) The stages of economic growth: a non–communist manifesto. Cambridge University Press

Saaverda L (2003) Tests for spatial lag dependence based on method of moments estimation. Reg Sci Urban Econ 33(1):27–58CrossRef

Sala-i-Martin X (1994) Cross-sectional regressions and the empirics of economic growth. Eur Econ Rev 38(3–4):739–747CrossRef

Sala-i-Martin X (1996a) Regional cohesion: evidence and theories of regional growth and convergence. Eur Econ Rev 40(6):1325–1352CrossRef

Sala-i-Martin X (1996b) The classical approach to convergence analysis. Econ J 106(437):1019–1036CrossRef

Salardi P (2009) Brazilian poverty between and within groups: decomposition by geographical, group-specific poverty lines. Review of Urban and Regional Development Studies 21(1):50–71CrossRef

Salinas-Jiménez M (2003) Technological change, efficiency gains and capital accumulation in labour productivity growth and convergence: an application to the Spanish regions. Appl Econ 35(17):1839–1851CrossRef

Siriopoulos C, Asteriou D (1998) Testing for convergence across the Greek Regions. Reg Stud 32(6):537–546CrossRef

Soukiazis E, Castro V (2005) How the Maastricht criteria and growth pact affected real convergence in the European Union: a panel-data analysis. J Policy Model 27(3):385–399CrossRef

Steinnes D (1980) Aggregation, gerrymandering and spatial econometrics. Reg Sci Urban Econ 10(4):561–569CrossRef

Strauss J (2000) Is there a permanent component in US real GDP? Econ Lett 66(2):137–142CrossRef

Tavernier E, Temel T (1997) National and regional analysis of convergence in real wages in the U.S. agricultural sector. J Reg Anal Policy 27(1):63–74

Tondl G (1999) The changing pattern of regional convergence in Europe. Jahrbuch fur Regionalwissenschaft 9(1):1–33

Tsionas E (2000b) Real convergence in Europe: how robust are econometric inferences? Appl Econ 32(11):1475–1482CrossRef

Tsionas E (2001) Regional convergence and common, stochastic long-run trends: a re-examination of the US regional data. Reg Stud 35(8):689–696CrossRef

Tsionas E (2002) Another look at regional convergence in Greece. Reg Stud 36(6):603–609CrossRef

Villaverde J (2005) Provincial convergence in Spain: a spatial econometric approach. Appl Econ Lett 12(11):697–700CrossRef

Webber D (2002) Labour’s reward across regions of the EU: a distributional dynamic approach. Appl Econ 34(3):385–394CrossRef

Williamson J (1965) Regional inequalities and the process of national development. Econ Dev Cult Change 13(4):3–45CrossRef

Yamamoto D (2008) Scales of regional income disparities in the USA, 1955–2003. J Econ Geogr 8(1):211–215

Yamarik S (2000) Can tax policy help explain state-level macroeconomic growth? Econ Lett 68(2):211–215CrossRef

Titel: Empirical Measures of Regional Convergence
verfasst von: Dr. Stilianos Alexiadis
Verlag: Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Buch: Convergence Clubs and Spatial Externalities
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-31625-8

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-642-31626-5

Copyright-Jahr: 2013
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-31626-5_5

Springer Professional

Abstract

Bitte loggen Sie sich ein, um Zugang zu Ihrer Lizenz zu erhalten.

Sie haben noch keine Lizenz? Dann Informieren Sie sich jetzt über unsere Produkte:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Springer Professional "Technik"

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"