1 Introduction and Motivation
2 Background
2.1 Gender Inequalities in Older Age
2.2 The Concept of “Active Ageing”
2.3 Measuring “Active Ageing”
2.4 Conceptual Issues in Constructing an Index
3 Data
Country | Total | Male | Female | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total | Mean age | Total | Mean age | ||
Austria | 3140 | 1290 | 69.2 | 1850 | 69.2 |
Germany | 4285 | 2037 | 67.3 | 2248 | 65.7 |
Sweden | 3830 | 1758 | 70.9 | 272 | 70.1 |
Spain | 5085 | 2288 | 69.8 | 2797 | 69.2 |
Italy | 4967 | 2266 | 67.8 | 2701 | 66.5 |
France | 3784 | 1635 | 67.5 | 2149 | 68.5 |
Denmark | 3637 | 1681 | 65.8 | 1956 | 65.8 |
Greece | 4722 | 2071 | 67.7 | 2651 | 66.4 |
Switzerland | 2760 | 1250 | 69.2 | 1510 | 68.4 |
Belgium | 5614 | 2518 | 66.5 | 3096 | 66.6 |
Czech Republic | 4653 | 1877 | 68.8 | 2776 | 68.2 |
Poland | 1737 | 759 | 66.6 | 978 | 66.5 |
Luxembourg | 1524 | 692 | 65.9 | 832 | 64.8 |
Portugal | 1493 | 659 | 68.2 | 834 | 66.9 |
Slovenia | 4062 | 1732 | 67.7 | 2330 | 67.7 |
Estonia | 5201 | 1952 | 67.6 | 3249 | 68.6 |
Croatia | 2405 | 1074 | 65.3 | 1331 | 65.1 |
Total | 62,899 | 27,539 | 67.9 | 35,360 | 67.5 |
SD | 9.55 | 10.1 |
4 Empirical Strategy
4.1 Framework
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Subjective Well-being contains information regarding life satisfaction and happiness, as well as depression, or enthusiasm for the future.
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Abilities refers to how well people age regarding their cognitive functions, such as numeracy, writing-, and reading skills. This dimension also captures several physical measures such as eyesight, reading and hearing.
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Social Networks captures information on the social environment of the participants. This dimension covers size, intensity, and satisfaction-level of a participant’s social networks.
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Physical Health contains information regarding mobility, chronic diseases or limitations in activities. This dimension consists of objective (e.g. grip strength) and subjective measures.
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Participation in Society is the degree to which participants actively contribute to society. Only voluntary activities are selected for this dimension such as participation in clubs, or charity work.
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Lifelong Learning contains variables such as current attainment in educational courses or the use of the Internet.
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Money captures economic aspects, containing the total (ppp-adjusted) income of an individual, as well as subjective questions on the economic situation, e.g. is the individual able to make ends meet? Participants with a yearly income above 1 million were dropped.
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Housing describes the living situation of the participants regarding the area they are living. Those questions are only answered by one individual per household; therefore we used a household-level value for each participant.
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Employment is the only dimension that consists of only one variable that is denoted as 1 if the respondent has any form of paid income (through employment or pension) and as 0 otherwise. Unfortunately, we could not use information on working conditions in our sample, because there is no way to impute these values for the elderly.
4.2 Selection of Variables and Principle Component Analysis
4.3 Extraction of Components
Dimension | KMO | Number of variables | Explained variance |
---|---|---|---|
Subjective well-being | 0.92 | 14 | 0.39 |
Abilities | 0.78 | 9 | 0.37 |
Social networks | 0.73 | 7 | 0.42 |
Physical health | 0.79 | 9 | 0.35 |
Participation in society | 0.64 | 6 | 0.43 |
Lifelong learning | 0.63 | 4 | 0.53 |
Money | 0.61 | 4 | 0.47 |
Housing | 0.70 | 5 | 0.40 |
Employment | – | 1 | – |
4.4 Aggregation to an Index
5 Results
5.1 Overview
Country | Index | Subjective well-being | Social networks | Physical health | Participation in society | Abilities | Lifelong learning | Money | Housing | Employment |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
DK | 65.2 | 84.4 | 46.3 | 74.2 | 59.5 | 69.8 | 57.3 | 27.4 | 76.1 | 91.3 |
CH | 62.8 | 82.7 | 45.8 | 74.6 | 52.8 | 66.5 | 48.6 | 28.4 | 79.9 | 85.8 |
AT | 61.0 | 80.0 | 49.4 | 68.5 | 50.4 | 68.3 | 37.6 | 25.5 | 82.2 | 87.2 |
LU | 58.2 | 79.2 | 43.1 | 69.3 | 48.6 | 64.7 | 43.0 | 27.2 | 75.5 | 72.9 |
SE | 64.2 | 78.9 | 46.1 | 73.5 | 53.7 | 68.6 | 51.3 | 26.8 | 84.2 | 94.9 |
DE | 60.5 | 78.3 | 47.2 | 68.4 | 51.0 | 65.2 | 43.0 | 25.0 | 79.9 | 86.4 |
SL | 56.0 | 75.9 | 45.2 | 67.0 | 41.9 | 59.4 | 29.4 | 20.3 | 78.4 | 86.8 |
BE | 58.2 | 75.4 | 45.2 | 69.3 | 49.3 | 64.1 | 44.4 | 25.4 | 73.0 | 77.6 |
FR | 57.7 | 74.1 | 45.2 | 68.3 | 46.9 | 60.8 | 37.2 | 23.3 | 74.8 | 88.4 |
ES | 50.1 | 71.8 | 47.9 | 66.0 | 31.5 | 50.7 | 21.8 | 21.2 | 76.0 | 63.6 |
HR | 52.0 | 70.7 | 49.6 | 66.7 | 32.3 | 63.2 | 23.1 | 17.4 | 76.0 | 68.7 |
PL | 50.9 | 69.8 | 45.8 | 63.5 | 31.3 | 56.0 | 19.6 | 17.8 | 74.5 | 79.9 |
CZ | 56.9 | 69.6 | 45.8 | 67.5 | 45.1 | 64.5 | 36.1 | 22.0 | 67.5 | 94.5 |
IT | 49.4 | 69.6 | 45.9 | 67.6 | 31.4 | 56.5 | 22.7 | 18.8 | 65.9 | 66.3 |
EE | 54.9 | 67.6 | 44.1 | 63.6 | 41.9 | 59.8 | 33.9 | 18.5 | 74.3 | 90.5 |
PT | 49.2 | 65.2 | 48.2 | 60.6 | 35.0 | 49.5 | 22.4 | 16.1 | 72.9 | 73.2 |
GR | 47.8 | 62.9 | 45.5 | 70.2 | 29.9 | 59.2 | 21.1 | 12.9 | 70.9 | 58.0 |
5.2 Gender Differences in Age Profiles
5.3 Gender Differences by SHARE-AAI Dimension
5.4 Correlates of Active Ageing: Education, Children, and Relationship Status
5.5 The Impact of Demographic and Socioeconomic Characteristics on Active Aging: Multivariate Analysis
(1) Index | (2) Sub. Wellb. | (3) Soc. Net. | (4) Ph. Health | (5) Part. Soc. | (6) Abilities | (7) Lifel. Learn. | (8) Money | (9) Housing | (10) Employm. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Female | − 1.964\(***\) | − 1.456\(***\) | 3.341\(***\) | − 5.860\(***\) | 0.630\(***\) | 0.616\(***\) | − 0.532\(**\) | − 1.078\(***\) | − 0.0304 | − 13.31\(***\) |
(0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.003) | (0.000) | (0.668) | (0.000) | |
Single | − 3.380\(***\) | − 6.823\(***\) | − 5.024\(***\) | − 2.758\(***\) | − 2.941\(***\) | − 2.539\(***\) | − 4.222\(***\) | − 2.615\(***\) | − 1.056\(***\) | − 2.441\(***\) |
(0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | |
yedu | 0.898\(***\) | 0.645\(***\) | 0.0358\(***\) | 0.434\(***\) | 1.350\(***\) | 1.206\(***\) | 2.371\(***\) | 0.457\(***\) | 0.0422\(***\) | 1.537\(***\) |
(0.000) | (0.000) | (0.001) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | |
nchild | 0.371\(***\) | 0.454\(***\) | 1.164\(***\) | − 0.00530 | 0.803\(***\) | 0.0425 | 0.608\(***\) | − 0.00285 | 0.272\(***\) | 0.00219 |
(0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.890) | (0.000) | (0.256) | (0.000) | (0.909) | (0.000) | (0.986) | |
hhsize | − 1.313\(***\) | − 1.299\(***\) | 0.653\(***\) | − 0.796\(***\) | − 2.459\(***\) | − 1.248\(***\) | − 2.900\(***\) | − 1.040\(***\) | − 0.447\(***\) | − 2.285\(***\) |
(0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | |
Age | − 0.165\(***\) | − 0.309\(***\) | − 0.0370\(***\) | − 0.486\(***\) | − 0.178\(***\) | − 0.405\(***\) | − 0.908\(***\) | 0.104\(***\) | 0.0322\(***\) | 0.706\(***\) |
(0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | |
_cons | 63.65\(***\) | 93.58\(***\) | 40.63\(***\) | 108.2\(***\) | 44.00\(***\) | 78.33\(***\) | 77.66\(***\) | 14.61\(***\) | 73.09\(***\) | 42.72\(***\) |
(0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | |
\(N\) | 61891 | 61891 | 61891 | 61891 | 61891 | 61891 | 61891 | 61891 | 61891 | 61891 |
(SE) | (DK) | (AT) | (BE) | (CH) | (CZ) | (EE) | (ES) | (FR) | (GR) | (HR) | (IT) | (LU) | (PL) | (PT) | (SL) | (DE) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Female | 0.129 | 0.937\(***\) | − 0.745\(**\) | − 1.041\(***\) | − 1.054\(***\) | 0.913\(***\) | 1.157\(***\) | − 1.718\(***\) | − 0.370 | − 1.977\(***\) | − 0.0914 | − 1.612\(***\) | − 0.764\(*\) | 0.628 | − 2.649\(***\) | 0.394 | 0.209 |
(0.507) | (0.000) | (0.004) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.123) | (0.000) | (0.784) | (0.000) | (0.044) | (0.078) | (0.000) | (0.079) | (0.362) | |
Single | − 3.685\(***\) | − 4.400\(***\) | − 2.801\(***\) | − 2.794\(***\) | − 3.263\(***\) | − 2.108\(***\) | − 2.246\(***\) | − 2.087\(***\) | − 3.253\(***\) | − 1.725\(***\) | − 1.776\(***\) | − 3.532\(***\) | − 3.132\(***\) | − 2.785\(***\) | − 1.060\(*\) | − 2.130\(***\) | − 3.259\(***\) |
(0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.027) | (0.000) | (0.000) | |
yedu | 0.427\(***\) | 0.614\(***\) | 0.272\(***\) | 0.729\(***\) | 0.219\(***\) | 0.797\(***\) | 0.915\(***\) | 0.543\(***\) | 0.871\(***\) | 0.558\(***\) | 1.150\(***\) | 0.812\(***\) | 0.896\(***\) | 1.048\(***\) | 1.014\(***\) | 1.051\(***\) | 0.684\(***\) |
(0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | |
nchild | 0.162 | 0.380\(***\) | 0.194\(*\) | 0.196\(*\) | 0.297\(**\) | − 0.200\(*\) | 0.577\(***\) | − 0.0144 | 0.274\(**\) | − 0.0468 | 0.200 | − 0.268\(**\) | 0.0747 | − 0.276\(*\) | − 0.0195 | 0.105 | − 0.0396 |
(0.051) | (0.000) | (0.047) | (0.012) | (0.004) | (0.046) | (0.000) | (0.836) | (0.003) | (0.643) | (0.224) | (0.004) | (0.627) | (0.023) | (0.896) | (0.405) | (0.700) | |
hhsize | − 1.039\(**\) | − 0.680\(**\) | − 0.317 | − 0.201 | − 0.581\(*\) | - 0.177 | − 0.357\(**\) | − 0.368\(***\) | − 1.048\(***\) | 0.0616 | 0.386\(**\) | − 0.578\(***\) | − 0.215 | 0.0163 | − 0.352\(*\) | − 0.0491 | − 0.158 |
(0.002) | (0.007) | (0.066) | (0.220) | (0.018) | (0.098) | (0.006) | (0.001) | (0.000) | (0.624) | (0.003) | (0.000) | (0.310) | (0.884) | (0.028) | (0.645) | (0.445) | |
Age | − 0.356\(***\) | − 0.274\(***\) | − 0.342\(***\) | − 0.294\(***\) | − 0.323\(***\) | − 0.291\(***\) | − 0.323\(***\) | − 0.334\(***\) | − 0.291\(***\) | − 0.323\(***\) | − 0.259\(***\) | − 0.211\(***\) | − 0.245\(***\) | − 0.233\(***\) | − 0.236\(***\) | − 0.328\(***\) | − 0.273\(***\) |
(0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | |
_cons | 82.82\(***\) | 71.91\(***\) | 81.37\(***\) | 69.09\(***\) | 83.24\(***\) | 62.44\(***\) | 60.17\(***\) | 70.93\(***\) | 66.85\(***\) | 66.52\(***\) | 54.12\(***\) | 59.39\(***\) | 63.87\(***\) | 52.78\(***\) | 61.01\(***\) | 63.29\(***\) | 67.62\(***\) |
(0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | |
\(N\) | 3700 | 3140 | 3058 | 4886 | 2702 | 4507 | 4647 | 4877 | 3437 | 4189 | 2115 | 4428 | 1365 | 1578 | 1449 | 3803 | 3741 |
50–54 | 55–59 | 60–64 | 65–69 | 70–74 | 75–79 | 80–84 | 85–90 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Female | − 0.159 | − 0.554\(***\) | 0.0157 | − 0.312\(*\) | − 0.613\(***\) | − 0.946\(***\) | − 1.603\(***\) | − 1.686\(***\) |
(0.489) | (0.001) | (0.918) | (0.042) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | |
Single | − 3.679\(***\) | − 3.028\(***\) | − 3.301\(***\) | − 3.831\(***\) | − 3.385\(***\) | − 3.421\(***\) | − 2.485\(***\) | − 2.180\(***\) |
(0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | |
yedu | 0.858\(***\) | 0.797\(***\) | 0.814\(***\) | 0.833\(***\) | 0.812\(***\) | 0.809\(***\) | 0.794\(***\) | 0.749\(***\) |
(0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | |
nchild | 0.552\(***\) | 0.470\(***\) | 0.283\(***\) | 0.396\(***\) | 0.290\(***\) | 0.423\(***\) | 0.334\(***\) | 0.557\(***\) |
(0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | |
hhsize | − 0.357\(**\) | − 0.933\(***\) | − 1.211\(***\) | − 1.505\(***\) | − 1.467\(***\) | − 1.378\(***\) | − 0.951\(***\) | − 1.087\(***\) |
(0.002) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | |
Age | 0.278\(**\) | − 0.255\(***\) | − 0.150\(**\) | − 0.195\(***\) | − 0.314\(***\) | − 0.476\(***\) | − 0.283\(***\) | − 0.289\(***\) |
(0.006) | (0.000) | (0.004) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.001) | |
_cons | 32.46\(***\) | 64.48\(***\) | 58.21\(***\) | 61.79\(***\) | 70.96\(***\) | 82.77\(***\) | 67.31\(***\) | 67.76\(***\) |
(0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | (0.000) | |
\(N\) | 5006 | 9633 | 11,328 | 11,370 | 9111 | 7471 | 5069 | 2937 |