1. Global Heterogeneity of the Lithosphere and Underlying Mantle: A Seismological Appraisal Based on Multimode Surface-Wave Dispersion Analysis, Shear-Velocity Tomography, and Tectonic Regionalization

Heterogeneity of the composition and physical state of the rocks within the Earth is reflected in variations in seismic wave speeds at depth. This seismic heterogeneity can be observed in a number of different ways, each yielding a complementary perspective on the Earth’s bulk properties, structure, and dynamics. A surface-wave dispersion diagram, constructed from millions of fundamental-mode and higher mode dispersion measurements around the world, shows variability around global averages for all modes and all frequencies that are included in it, with the largest variations seen for the fundamental-mode phase and group velocities at short periods (less than 30 and 40 s, respectively) that sample the highly heterogeneous crust and uppermost mantle. Seismic tomography turns large sets of measurements into models of three-dimensional wave speed variations at depth. Global shear-wave speed models have been in agreement since 1990s regarding heterogeneity in the upper mantle at thousands-of-kilometres scales. The rapid recent increase in global data sampling facilitated an increase in the tomographic resolution, and a number of today’s models show close agreement in the upper 200 km of the mantle at much shorter, hundreds-of-kilometres scale lengths. Greater disagreements between different models remain in the mantle transition zone. Our new model SL2013sv, constrained by an unprecedentedly large new data set of multimode waveform fits, demonstrates increased resolution compared to other existing models for a variety of features; it captures regional-scale heterogeneity globally, within both the upper mantle and the crust. A global stack of shear-velocity profiles extracted from SL2013sv shows a monotonic decrease in the amplitude of wave speed variations with depth, mirrored by a decrease in RMS variations in SL2013sv and other current models, from largest in the top 150–200 km to much smaller below 250 km. Regionalization of SL2013sv by means of cluster analysis, with no a priori information, provides an accurate tectonic regionalization of the entire Earth. The three oceanic and three continental types that naturally come out of the clustering differ by the age of the deep lithosphere. The results give a new perspective on the “depth of tectonics”—the depths down to which shear speed profiles (and, by inference, geotherms) beneath oceanic and continental regions of different ages are different. Old oceanic plates are underlain by higher shear-wave speeds compared to young- and intermediate-age oceans down to 200 km depth. At 200–250 km, all type-average mantle profiles converge, except for the Archean craton profile that shows distinctly higher velocities down to 250–280 km depths.