Introduction
Literature review
Commuting and satisfaction with life overall
Commuting and satisfaction with sub-domains of life
Commuting and experiential wellbeing
Commuting and mental health
Study objectives and contribution
Data
Variable | Question | Measure |
---|---|---|
Commute time | About how much time does it usually take for you to get to work each day, door to door (in minutes)? | Integer number of minutes |
Commute mode | And how do you usually get to your place of work? (mode used for the longest part of the journey) | Categorical variable: drive by car or van, get a lift, motorcycle, taxi, bus, train, metro, cycle, walk, other |
Measure | Question wording | Measurement |
---|---|---|
Life satisfaction | How dissatisfied or satisfied are you with your life overall? | 7-Point scale with 7 representing the most positive response |
Job satisfaction | How dissatisfied or satisfied are you with your job? | 7-Point scale with 7 representing the most positive response |
Leisure time satisfaction | How dissatisfied or satisfied are you with the amount of leisure time you have? | 7-Point scale with 7 representing the most positive respons |
Self-reported health | In general, would you say your health is? (poor to excellent) | 5-Point scale with 5 representing the most positive response |
Mental health | Based on the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) scale | 36 Point scale with 0 representing the most positive response. This was reversed for our analysis with 36 representing the most positive response |
Strain | Have you recently felt constantly under strain? (asked with respect to the ‘last few weeks’) | 4-Point scale with 1 ‘not at all’, 2 ‘no more than usual’, 3 ‘rather more than usual’ and 4 ‘much more than usual’ |
Analytical approach
Model specification
Mean/mode | SD overalla | SD betweenb | SD withinc | Min | Max | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dependent variables | ||||||
Job satisfaction | 5.28/6 | 1.45 | 1.23 | 0.94 | 1 | 7 |
Leisure time satisfaction | 4.37/6 | 1.58 | 1.34 | 1.01 | 1 | 7 |
Self-reported health | 3.66/4 | 0.96 | 0.88 | 0.50 | 1 | 5 |
Strain | 2.03/2 | 0.75 | 0.64 | 0.50 | 1 | 4 |
Mental health | 25.33/30 | 4.99 | 4.36 | 3.05 | 0 | 36 |
Life satisfaction | 5.19/6 | 1.39 | 1.18 | 0.90 | 1 | 7 |
Independent continuous variables | ||||||
Commute time (mins) | 27.03 | 21.93 | 20.55 | 10.24 | 1 | 175 |
Age | 41.12 | 12.86 | 13.66 | 1.43 | 16 | 87 |
Gross monthly personal income (£100 per month) | 21.88 | 17.52 | 16.44 | 6.81 | 0.0007 | 150 |
Equivalised net monthly household income (£100 per month) | 18.47 | 10.95 | 9.87 | 5.78 | 0.01 | 200 |
n | % | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Independent categorical variables | ||||||
Female | 43,651 | 54.71 | – | – | – | – |
Ethnicity: white UK | 61,675 | 77.29 | – | – | – | – |
Ethnicity: missing | 508 | 0.64 | – | – | – | – |
Live with a partner | 54,166 | 67.88 | – | – | – | – |
Live with a child | 28,913 | 36.24 | – | – | – | – |
Belong to a religion: yes | 38,505 | 48.26 | – | – | – | – |
Belong to a religion: no | 39,113 | 49.02 | – | – | – | – |
Belong to a religion: missing | 2175 | 2.73 | – | – | – | – |
Education: degree | 25,596 | 32.08 | – | – | – | – |
Education: ‘A’ Level | 17,783 | 22.29 | – | – | – | – |
Education: GCSE | 16,600 | 20.8 | – | – | – | – |
Education: other higher | 10,738 | 13.46 | – | – | – | – |
Education: other or none | 9076 | 11.37 | – | – | – | – |
Long standing health condition | 19,334 | 24.23 | – | – | – | – |
Area: inner London | 5029 | 6.30 | – | – | – | – |
Area: outer London | 8945 | 11.21 | – | – | – | – |
Area: metropolitan | 12,034 | 15.08 | – | – | – | – |
Area: large urban (250 k +) | 8856 | 11.10 | – | – | – | – |
Area: medium urban (25–250 k) | 21,272 | 26.66 | – | – | – | – |
Area: small urban (10–25 k) | 6271 | 7.86 | – | – | – | – |
Area: very small urban (3–10 k) | 4102 | 5.14 | – | – | – | – |
Area: rural | 13,284 | 16.65 | – | – | – | – |
Tenure: own outright | 14,409 | 18.06 | – | – | – | – |
Tenure: own with a mortgage | 43,267 | 54.22 | – | – | – | – |
Tenure: rent public sector | 9270 | 11.62 | – | – | – | – |
Tenure: rent private sector | 12,309 | 15.43 | – | – | – | – |
Tenure: other | 538 | 0.67 | – | – | – | – |
Working hours < 30 h/wk | 23,509 | 29.46 | – | – | – | – |
Working hours 30–40 h/wk | 47,385 | 59.38 | – | – | – | – |
Working hours > 40 h/wk | 8899 | 11.15 | – | – | – | – |
Temporary employment | 6630 | 8.31 | – | – | – | – |
Emp. type: management | 33,893 | 42.48 | – | – | – | – |
Emp. type: intermediate | 11,790 | 14.78 | – | – | – | – |
Emp. type: small emp./self-emp. | 3925 | 4.92 | – | – | – | – |
Emp. type: lower supervisory | 5927 | 7.43 | – | – | – | – |
Emp. type: misc/unknown | 24,258 | 30.4 | – | – | – | – |
Ethnic minority boost sample member | 9943 | 12.46 | – | – | – | – |
Population sub-groups
Life satisfaction mediation
Results
Descriptive analyses
Commute mode | n | Percentage | One-way commute time (mins) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | SD | |||
Drive by car/van | 48,550 | 60.8 | 24.7 | 19.1 |
Bus | 5959 | 7.5 | 39.2 | 21.3 |
Rail/metro | 6937 | 8.7 | 58.0 | 26.1 |
Cycle | 2925 | 3.7 | 20.1 | 13.9 |
Walk | 9869 | 12.4 | 14.8 | 12.2 |
Other | 5553 | 7.0 | 21.1 | 17.2 |
Full commuting sample | 79,793 | 100.0 | 27.0 | 21.9 |
Work from home | 6631 | 7.7 | – | – |
Full work from home sample | 86,424 | 100 | – | – |
Changes to commuting behaviour
Commuting change | n | Percentage | Mean absolute change in commute time (mins)a |
---|---|---|---|
Changed origin (moved to a new local area) | 5278 | 6.61 | 14 |
Changed destination (employer/workplace) | 7744 | 9.71 | 17 |
Changed origin or destination | 11,908 | 14.92 | 16 |
Total observations | 79,793 | 100.00 | 8 |
Bivariate associations
Regression models
Job satisfaction | Leisure time satisfaction | Self reported healtha | Strain | GHQ12 | Life satisfaction | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Within-individual variation | ||||||
Commute time (mins) | − 0.0011*** | − 0.0030*** | − 0.0004 | 0.0004** | − 0.0028** | − 0.0001 |
Commute mode [Ref: drive] | ||||||
Bus | 0.0249 | 0.0407 | 0.0162 | − 0.0148 | − 0.0035 | − 0.0101 |
Rail/metro | − 0.0032 | − 0.0074 | − 0.0046 | − 0.0157 | 0.0010 | − 0.0632* |
Cycle | − 0.0239 | 0.0690 | 0.0331 | − 0.0146 | 0.0321 | 0.0636 |
Walk | − 0.0100 | 0.0792*** | 0.0117 | − 0.0467*** | 0.0487 | − 0.0105 |
Other | 0.0044 | − 0.0002 | 0.0008 | − 0.0162 | − 0.0179 | − 0.0380 |
Between-individual variation | ||||||
Commute time (mins) | − 0.0018*** | − 0.0015** | 0.0002 | 0.0005 | − 0.0039* | − 0.0014** |
Commute mode [Ref: drive] | ||||||
Bus | − 0.0196 | 0.0508 | − 0.0785*** | − 0.0570** | 0.3861** | − 0.0006 |
Rail/metro | 0.0752 | 0.1318** | 0.0457 | − 0.0018 | 0.0484 | 0.1074** |
Cycle | 0.0733 | 0.0503 | 0.1589*** | 0.0229 | − 0.0035 | 0.0288 |
Walk | 0.0980** | 0.0256 | − 0.0153 | 0.0394** | 0.0316 | 0.0545 |
Other | 0.0714 | 0.1139** | − 0.0553** | − 0.0177 | 0.2454 | 0.0761* |
No. of observations | 79,577 | 79,577 | 68,306 | 79,577 | 79,577 | 79,577 |
No. of individuals | 26,498 | 26,498 | 25,242 | 26,498 | 26,498 | 26,498 |
R− sq (between and within)b | 0.0327 | 0.0662 | 0.2057 | 0.049 | 0.0556 | 0.0622 |
Job satisfaction | Leisure time satisfaction | Self reported healtha | Strain | GHQ12 | Life satisfaction | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Within-individual variation | ||||||
Commute time (mins) | − 0.0011*** | − 0.0027*** | − 0.0003 | 0.0003 | − 0.0021 | 0.0002 |
Commute mode [Ref: drive] | ||||||
Bus | 0.0178 | 0.0368 | 0.0163 | − 0.0063 | − 0.0203 | − 0.0230 |
Rail/metro | − 0.0095 | 0.0011 | 0.0008 | − 0.0050 | − 0.0355 | − 0.0786** |
Cycle | − 0.0101 | 0.0696 | 0.0426* | − 0.0029 | 0.0153 | 0.0474 |
Walk | 0.0020 | 0.0837*** | 0.0167 | − 0.0403*** | 0.0548 | − 0.0205 |
Work from home | 0.0847** | 0.1004*** | − 0.0209 | 0.0051 | − 0.1804 | 0.0162 |
Other | 0.0084 | 0.0075 | 0.0000 | − 0.0149 | − 0.0099 | − 0.0438 |
Between-individual variation | ||||||
Commute time (mins) | − 0.0020*** | − 0.0021*** | 0.0001 | 0.0007** | − 0.0051** | − 0.0018*** |
Commute mode [Ref: drive] | ||||||
Bus | − 0.0167 | 0.0567 | − 0.0789*** | − 0.0703*** | 0.4126*** | 0.0172 |
Rail/metro | 0.0760 | 0.1317** | 0.0416 | − 0.0160 | 0.1160 | 0.1411*** |
Cycle | 0.0445 | 0.0446 | 0.1462*** | 0.0082 | 0.0161 | 0.0499 |
Walk | 0.0709* | 0.0121 | − 0.0253 | 0.0333* | 0.0014 | 0.0647* |
Work from home | − 0.0020*** | − 0.0021*** | 0.0001 | 0.0007** | − 0.0051** | − 0.0018*** |
Other | 0.0522 | 0.1035** | − 0.0570** | − 0.0188 | 0.2202 | 0.0813* |
No. of observations | 86,088 | 86,088 | 73,837 | 86,088 | 86,088 | 86,088 |
No. of individuals | 27,975 | 27,975 | 26,739 | 27,975 | 27,975 | 27,975 |
R-sq (between and within)b | 0.0365 | 0.0704 | 0.049 | 0.0505 | 0.056 | 0.0612 |
Job satisfaction | Leisure time satisfaction | Self reported healtha | Strain | GHQ12 | Life satisfaction | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(1) Commute mode [Ref: drive] | ||||||
Bus | 0.1099* | − 0.0084 | − 0.0037 | − 0.0406 | 0.2564 | 0.0256 |
Rail/metro | 0.0164 | − 0.0049 | − 0.0686* | 0.0338 | 0.0583 | − 0.0480 |
Cycle | − 0.0723 | 0.0598 | 0.0437 | − 0.0404 | 0.0888 | 0.1100* |
Walk | − 0.0153 | 0.0659 | − 0.0005 | − 0.0536** | 0.0417 | 0.0125 |
Other | 0.0345 | 0.1122** | 0.0058 | − 0.0169 | 0.0288 | 0.0382 |
Commute time (mins) | − 0.0007 | − 0.0030*** | − 0.0008** | 0.0005 | − 0.0015 | 0.0005 |
Commute time × Bus | − 0.0022* | 0.0013 | 0.0006 | 0.0007 | − 0.0070* | − 0.0012 |
Commute time × Rail/metro | − 0.0005 | − 0.0001 | 0.0013** | − 0.0008 | − 0.0018 | − 0.0007 |
Commute time × Cycle | 0.0026 | 0.0006 | − 0.0006 | 0.0014 | − 0.0026 | − 0.0022 |
Commute time × Walk | 0.0005 | 0.0010 | 0.0006 | 0.0004 | 0.0011 | − 0.0010 |
Commute time × Other | − 0.0013 | − 0.0049*** | − 0.0002 | 0.0001 | − 0.0019 | − 0.0034** |
No. of observations | 79,577 | 79,577 | 68,306 | 79,577 | 79,577 | 79,577 |
No. of individuals | 26,498 | 26,498 | 25,242 | 26,498 | 26,498 | 26,498 |
R-sqc | 0.0041 | 0.03 | 0.096 | 0.0167 | 0.0092 | 0.0097 |
(2) Gender [Ref: male] | ||||||
Commute time (mins) | − 0.0005 | − 0.0031*** | − 0.0006* | 0.0007** | − 0.0026 | 0.0002 |
Commute tme × Female | − 0.0012 | 0.0001 | 0.0005 | − 0.0005 | − 0.0004 | − 0.0006 |
No. of observations | 79,577 | 79,577 | 68,306 | 79,577 | 79,577 | 79,577 |
No. of individuals | 26,498 | 26,498 | 25,242 | 26,498 | 26,498 | 26,498 |
R-sqc | 0.0039 | 0.03 | 0.0968 | 0.0152 | 0.0093 | 0.0096 |
(3) Age [Ref: 30–45] | ||||||
Commute time (mins) | − 0.0015** | − 0.0036*** | − 0.0005 | 0.0003 | − 0.0027 | − 0.0002 |
Age 16–24 | − 0.1969*** | 0.0414 | − 0.1366*** | 0.0007 | 0.2965 | 0.0043 |
Age 25–29 | − 0.0930** | 0.0376 | − 0.0494* | 0.0141 | 0.0082 | 0.0155 |
Age 45–59 | 0.0358 | 0.0130 | 0.0068 | − 0.0350* | 0.1472 | 0.0135 |
Age 60+ | 0.1166* | 0.1041 | − 0.0184 | − 0.1245*** | 0.5684*** | 0.0461 |
Commute time × age 16–24 | 0.0028** | 0.0012 | 0.0004 | 0.0004 | − 0.0029 | 0.0001 |
Commute time × age 25–29 | 0.0035*** | 0.0009 | 0.0000 | − 0.0007 | 0.0029 | − 0.0002 |
Commute time × age 45–59 | − 0.0007 | 0.0011 | 0.0002 | 0.0004 | 0.0002 | 0.0002 |
Commute time × age 60+ | − 0.0025 | − 0.0013 | 0.0005 | 0.0012 | − 0.0035 | 0.0009 |
No. of observations | 79,577 | 79,577 | 68,306 | 79,577 | 79,577 | 79,577 |
No. of individuals | 26,498 | 26,498 | 25,242 | 26,498 | 26,498 | 26,498 |
R-sqc | 0.0047 | 0.0301 | 0.0966 | 0.0165 | 0.0092 | 0.0096 |
(4) Personal income [Ref: quint 5]b | ||||||
Commute time (mins) | − 0.0018*** | − 0.0034*** | − 0.0002 | 0.0003 | − 0.0027 | 0.0000 |
Inc quint 1 | − 0.2456*** | 0.1066** | − 0.0083 | − 0.0383 | − 0.1300 | − 0.0677 |
Inc quint 2 | − 0.2121*** | − 0.0142 | 0.0346 | − 0.0464** | 0.1083 | − 0.0895** |
Inc quint 3 | − 0.1759*** | − 0.0173 | 0.0203 | − 0.0483*** | 0.0920 | − 0.0605* |
Inc quint 4 | − 0.0581** | 0.0274 | 0.0165 | − 0.0268* | 0.0601 | − 0.0623** |
Commute time × inc quint 1 | 0.0029** | 0.0009 | 0.0001 | 0.0000 | 0.0049 | − 0.0006 |
Commute time × inc quint 2 | 0.0013 | 0.0013 | − 0.0004 | 0.0007 | − 0.0059 | − 0.0003 |
Commute time × inc quint 3 | 0.0019** | 0.0017* | − 0.0004 | 0.0001 | 0.0008 | − 0.0009 |
Commute time × inc quint 4 | 0.0002 | − 0.0001 | − 0.0003 | 0.0001 | − 0.0002 | 0.0002 |
No. of observations | 79,643 | 79,643 | 68,333 | 79,643 | 26,514 | 79,643 |
No. of individuals | 26,514 | 26,514 | 25,250 | 26,514 | 26,514 | 26,514 |
R-sqc | 0.004 | 0.0292 | 0.0954 | 0.0168 | 0.0081 | 0.0092 |
Job satisfaction
Leisure time satisfaction
Self-reported health
Strain
Mental health
Life satisfaction
Life satisfaction mediation analysis
Main model | (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Within individual variation | |||||
Job satisfaction | 0.1015*** | 0.0567*** | |||
Leisure time satisfaction | 0.3855*** | 0.3709*** | |||
Strain | − 0.2708*** | − 0.1514*** | |||
Commute time (mins) | − 0.0001 | 0.0000 | 0.0011*** | 0.0001 | 0.0012*** |
Commute mode [Ref: drive] | |||||
Bus | − 0.0101 | − 0.0126 | − 0.0258 | − 0.0141 | − 0.0288 |
Rail/metro | − 0.0632* | − 0.0628* | − 0.0603* | − 0.0674* | − 0.0626** |
Cycle | 0.0636 | 0.0660 | 0.0370 | 0.0596 | 0.0371 |
Walk | − 0.0105 | − 0.0095 | − 0.0410* | − 0.0231 | − 0.0464* |
Other | − 0.0380 | − 0.0384 | − 0.0379 | − 0.0424 | − 0.0406 |
Between individual variation | |||||
Job satisfaction | 0.1608*** | 0.0571*** | |||
Leisure time satisfaction | 0.1183*** | 0.0555*** | |||
Strain | − 0.4010*** | − 0.1576*** | |||
Commute time (mins) | − 0.0014** | − 0.0008 | − 0.0003 | − 0.0009* | − 0.0001 |
Commute mode [Ref: drive] | |||||
Bus | − 0.0006 | 0.0000 | − 0.0327 | − 0.0456 | − 0.0458 |
Rail/metro | 0.1074** | 0.0879* | 0.0401 | 0.0993** | 0.0377 |
Cycle | 0.0288 | 0.0136 | − 0.0046 | 0.0377 | 0.0012 |
Walk | 0.0545 | 0.0312 | 0.0351 | 0.0640* | 0.0368 |
Other | 0.0761* | 0.0570 | 0.0190 | 0.0579 | 0.0120 |
No. of observations | 79,577 | 79,577 | 79,577 | 79,577 | 79,577 |
No. of individuals | 26,498 | 26,498 | 26,498 | 26,498 | 26,498 |
R-sq (between and within) | 0.0622 | 0.1153 | 0.3124 | 0.1498 | 0.3439 |