How Glass Changed the World

As outlined in the previous chapter, glass as an independent material is not thought to predate 3000 BCE, with its earliest development located in Mesopotamia and Syria. Routine glass production is then thought to have started in Mesopotamia around 1550 BCE. It is generally assumed that glass-working was then introduced into Egypt during the reign of Tuthmosis III (1479–1425 BCE) through a combination of glass objects and ingots being imported as tribute. Mesopotamian glassmakers were also thought to have been imported into Egypt so that local production of glass in western Thebes was established by the time of Amenophis III (ca. 1388–ca. 1350 BCE). However, it is less well established whether Egypt initially relied on imported raw materials (in the form of ingots and cullet) that were then worked in Egypt, or whether glass was actually being produced onsite. Nevertheless, evidence supports onsite glass production in Egypt by 1350 BCE and points to Egypt as a primary glass producer during this early period of glass production.

In the fourth century CE, the stability of the Roman Empire began to rapidly diminish. As the central cohesion of the Empire was lost, glassmaking centers began to more greatly reflect their regional influences and many of the more sophisticated techniques became less widespread. Shortly before 300 CE, Diocletian became Emperor and tried to stabilize the Empire by dividing it into Western and Eastern halves. Each half of the former Empire had its own capital (Rome in West and Constantinople in the East) and Emperor, although the Emperor of the West was subservient to that of the East. The fragmentation of the empire, first into East and West, and later into isolated regions conquered by outside forces, meant the end of centralized glass production. Glassmaking shifted from urban centers to rural locations closer to sources of fuel. As a result, glassmakers within the two halves of the empire became isolated and eastern and western glassware gradually acquired distinct characteristics. Still, glassmaking was able to survive the end of the unified Roman system and adapted to the needs of the new political framework. The primary result of this changing framework was the loss of more specialized and sophisticated decoration techniques, such as cutting, polishing, and enameling. Critical techniques such as glassblowing were simplified to their basic essentials and simple procedures like mold blowing essentially disappeared.

As presented in the previous chapter, the Venetian advancements in glassmaking led to its application in laboratory apparatus and development of laboratory glassware. While in many cases, the new laboratory glassware followed older designs previously fabricated from inferior materials, the quality and clarity of the Venetian glass also led to completely new and important objects such as lenses. In fact, some have stated that the most important long term consequence of clear glass manufacture was its development as a thinking tool through the production of mirrors, lenses, and eyeglasses. Through its application in eyeglasses, glass has corrected and helped preserve our eyesight, and its use in the telescope, microscope, spectrometer, and other optical instruments has widened and deepened our ability to see that which is very small or far away. This final chapter will outline the application of glass to the development of such additional critical glass objects and instruments, along with a discussion of how the developments in both the previous and current chapter impacted both society and progress in the chemical sciences.