1 Introduction
2 The Brazilian Context
2.1 Some History
2.2 Political Aspects
3 The Data24
3.1 The Census of 1920
Extension of the rural properties (ha) | Number of rural properties | Percentage to total (%) | Area (ha) | Percentage to total (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Smaller than 41 | 317,785 | 49.0 | 6,115,158 | 3.5 |
41–100 | 146,094 | 22.5 | 9,593,156 | 5.5 |
101–200 | 71,377 | 11.0 | 10,454,242 | 6.0 |
201–400 | 48,877 | 7.6 | 14,079,761 | 8.0 |
401–1000 | 37,705 | 5.8 | 23,881,734 | 13.6 |
1001–2000 | 13,186 | 2.0 | 18,891,552 | 10.8 |
2001–5000 | 8963 | 1.4 | 28,667,844 | 16.4 |
5001–10,000 | 2498 | 0.4 | 17,928,532 | 10.2 |
10,001–25,000 | 1207 | 0.2 | 18,256,042 | 10.4 |
Bigger than 25,000 | 461 | 0.1 | 27,236,654 | 15.6 |
Total | 648,153 | 100.0 | 175,104,675 | 100.0 |
Variable | Minas Gerais | Pernambuco | São Paulo | Rio Grande do Sul |
---|---|---|---|---|
Number of municipalities in 1920 | 178 | 59 | 204 | 71 |
Number of municipalities in 2000 | 853 | 185 | 645 | 467 |
Number of observations (CTU) | 143 | 51 | 188 | 58 |
Total area (ha) | 59,381,000 | 9,925,400 | 24,723,900 | 28,528,900 |
Rural property share (%, 1920) | 46.1 | 52.0 | 56.2 | 65.1 |
Average municipality area (hectare, 1920) | 333,601 (529,180) | 168,227 (191,942) | 121,196 (262,704) | 401,815 (305,885) |
Total population (1920) | 5,888,174 | 2,154,835 | 4,592,188 | 2,182,713 |
Average total population (municipality, 1920) | 33,080 (24,734) | 36,523 (32,860) | 22,511 (43,009) | 30,742 (23,785) |
Population density (hectare, 1920) | 0.10 | 0.22 | 0.19 | 0.08 |
Total male (Brazilian) population (1920, total and %) | 2,927,285 | 1,046,098 | 1,917,238 | 1,014,905 |
49.7 | 48.5 | 41.7 | 46.5 | |
Total number of foreigners (1920, total and %) | 85,705 | 11,698 | 829,851 | 151,025 |
1.5 | 0.5 | 18.1 | 6.9 | |
Agricultural sector (% of population employed, 1920) | 21.0 | 21.4 | 18.3 | 16.9 |
Land-use activities (% of population employed, 1920) | 21.2 | 22.0 | 18.9 | 18.6 |
Industrial sector (% of population employed, 1920) | 2.5 | 3.3 | 5.0 | 3.9 |
Commercial sector (% of population employed, 1920) | 1.0 | 1.3 | 1.9 | 1.8 |
Public administration sector (% of population employed, 1920) | 0.1 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.4 |
Liberal professions (% of population employed, 1920) | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.8 | 0.7 |
3.2 Land Distribution and Political Concentration
Extension of the rural properties (ha)
|
Minas Gerais
|
Pernambuco
| ||||||
Number of rural properties
|
Percentage to total (%)
|
Area (ha)
|
Percentage to total (%)
|
Number of rural properties
|
Percentage to total (%)
|
Area (ha)
|
Percentage to total (%)
| |
Smaller than 41 | 37,375 | 32.3 | 784,875 | 2.9 | 6175 | 26.5 | 142,025 | 2.8 |
41–100 | 32,650 | 28.2 | 2,252,850 | 8.2 | 5044 | 21.6 | 332,904 | 6.5 |
101–200 | 19,966 | 17.3 | 2,974,934 | 10.9 | 5268 | 22.6 | 742,788 | 14.4 |
201–400 | 12,883 | 11.1 | 3,736,070 | 13.6 | 3600 | 15.4 | 1,015,200 | 19.7 |
401–1000 | 8773 | 7.6 | 5,518,217 | 20.1 | 2515 | 10.8 | 1,551,755 | 30.1 |
1001–2000 | 2440 | 2.1 | 3,467,240 | 12.7 | 523 | 2.2 | 703,435 | 13.6 |
2001–5000 | 1174 | 1.0 | 3,639,400 | 13.3 | 197 | 0.8 | 577,013 | 11.2 |
5001–10,000 | 261 | 0.2 | 1,835,091 | 6.7 | 13 | 0.1 | 80,678 | 1.6 |
10,001–25,000 | 95 | 0.1 | 1,336,175 | 4.9 | 1 | 0.0 | 11,400 | 0.2 |
Bigger than 25,000 | 38 | 0.0 | 1,848,358 | 6.7 | 0 | 0.0 | 0 | 0.0 |
Total | 115,655 | 100.0 | 27,393,210 | 100.0 | 23,336 | 100.0 | 5,157,198 | 100.0 |
Extension of the rural properties (ha)
|
São Paulo
|
Rio Grande do Sul
| ||||||
Number of rural properties
|
Percentage to total (%)
|
Area (ha)
|
Percentage to total (%)
|
Number of rural properties
|
Percentage to total (%)
|
Area (ha)
|
Percentage to total (%)
| |
Smaller than 41 | 39,190 | 48.4 | 783,800 | 5.6 | 77,096 | 61.7 | 1,619,016 | 8.7 |
41–100 | 20,410 | 25.2 | 1,326,650 | 9.5 | 27,433 | 21.9 | 1,700,846 | 9.1 |
101–200 | 9345 | 11.5 | 1,345,680 | 9.7 | 7790 | 6.2 | 1,137,340 | 6.1 |
201–400 | 5866 | 7.2 | 1,665,944 | 12.0 | 4777 | 3.8 | 1,399,661 | 7.5 |
401–1000 | 4111 | 5.1 | 2,536,487 | 18.2 | 4415 | 3.5 | 2,803,525 | 15.1 |
1001–2000 | 1190 | 1.5 | 1,712,410 | 12.3 | 1884 | 1.5 | 2,677,164 | 14.4 |
2001–5000 | 618 | 0.8 | 1,863,888 | 13.4 | 1200 | 1.0 | 3,681,600 | 19.8 |
5001–10,000 | 118 | 0.1 | 838,626 | 6.0 | 301 | 0.2 | 1,983,891 | 10.7 |
10,001–25,000 | 52 | 0.1 | 796,224 | 5.7 | 87 | 0.1 | 1,202,079 | 6.5 |
Bigger than 25,000 | 21 | 0.0 | 1,034,922 | 7.4 | 7 | 0.0 | 384,874 | 2.1 |
Total | 80,921 | 100.0 | 13,904,631 | 100.0 | 124,990 | 100.0 | 18,589,996 | 100.0 |
All CTU | Minas Gerais | Pernambuco | São Paulo | Rio Grande do Sul | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Land Gini (1920) | 0.61 | 0.60 | 0.44 | 0.65 | 0.63 |
(0.13) | (0.08) | (0.12) | (0.11) | (0.18) | |
Overall land Gini (1920) | 0.85 | 0.87 | 0.87 | 0.87 | 0.71 |
(0.14) | (0.06) | (0.12) | (0.13) | (0.21) | |
Voters (%, 1920) | 7.56 | 8.14 | 5.52 | 6.71 | 10.71 |
(2.61) | (2.41) | (199) | (1.85) | (2.47) | |
GDP per capita (log, 2000) | 8.50 (0.62) | 8.35 (0.51) | 7.65 (0.52) | 8.77 (0.51) | 8.71 (0.53) |
Average years of schooling (2000) | 5.18 | 4.93 | 3.67 | 5.63 | 5.68 |
(111) | (0.91) | (1.12) | (0.87) | (0.86) | |
Infant mortality (2000) | 23.50 | 25.42 | 54.75 | 15.53 | 17.15 |
(14.03) | (6.55) | (14.47) | (4.90) | (3.79) | |
HDI (2000) | 0.76 | 0.76 | 0.64 | 0.79 | 0.79 |
(0.06) | (0.04) | (0.05) | (0.03) | (0.03) | |
Poverty (%, 2000) | 28.76 | 31.04 | 62.16 | 19.17 | 24.84 |
(17.60) | (14.30) | (11.15) | (10.26) | (9.54) | |
Income Gini (2000) | 0.55 | 0.56 | 0.59 | 0.54 | 0.55 |
(0.04) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.04) | (0.05) |
4 Quantitative Analysis
4.1 Inequality and Long-Term Development
4.2 Contemporary Outcomes
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) | (11) | (12) | (13) | (14) | (15) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
All comparable territorial units | |||||||||||||||
Log GDP per capita
| Log average years of schooling | Infant mortality | |||||||||||||
MG*Gini | 2.43*** | 2.50*** | 1.48*** | 1.23** | 0.84*** | 0.91*** | 0.67*** | 0.55*** | −26.19*** | −26.82*** | −7.74 | −6.35 | |||
PE*Gini | −0.24 | −0.16 | −0.19 | −0.29 | −0.04 | 0.06 | 0.05 | −0.00 | 2.90 | −0.57 | −1.13 | −0.56 | |||
SP*Gini | 1.25*** | 1.24*** | 0.89** | 0.60* | 0.50*** | 0.48*** | 0.41*** | 0.27*** | −10.05** | −10.41*** | −3.50 | −1.90 | |||
RS*Gini | −1.09*** | −1.10*** | −0.90*** | −0.81*** | −0.15* | −0.15* | −0.15 | −0.10 | 10.57*** | 10.53*** | 11.48*** | 10.97*** | |||
MG*Voters | 0.04** | 0.05*** | 0.03* | 0.01 | 0.04*** | 0.04*** | 0.02*** | 0.01** | −0.37 | −0.42* | 0.25 | 0.38* | |||
PE*Voters | 0.06 | 0.06 | 0.02 | −0.01 | 0.09*** | 0.09*** | 0.07*** | 0.05*** | –2.92*** | –2.93*** | −1.79*** | −1.62** | |||
SP*Voters | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.03 | −0.01 | 0.03*** | 0.03*** | 0.03*** | 0.01 | 0.56*** | 0.58*** | 0.20 | 0.43** | |||
RS*Voters | 0.05** | 0.05*** | 0.04** | 0.02 | 0.02*** | 0.02*** | 0.02** | 0.01 | 0.17 | 0.15 | 0.19 | 0.29* | |||
Geographic controls | No | No | No | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | Yes | Yes |
Educational controls | No | No | No | No | Yes | No | No | No | No | Yes | No | No | No | No | Yes |
Observations | 440 | 440 | 440 | 440 | 440 | 440 | 440 | 440 | 440 | 440 | 440 | 440 | 440 | 440 | 440 |
R
2
| 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.99 | 0.99 | 0.99 | 0.99 | 0.99 | 0.94 | 0.94 | 0.94 | 0.96 | 0.96 |
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
All comparable territorial units | |||||||||
Log GDP per capita
| Log average years of schooling | Infant mortality | |||||||
MG*Gini | 2.84*** | 1.46*** | 0.95*** | 0.60*** | −33.61*** | −11.85 | |||
PE*Gini | −0.53 | −0.34 | −0.06 | −0.05 | 1.18 | −0.77 | |||
SP*Gini | 1.09** | 0.69 | 034** | 0.31** | −1.40 | −0.10 | |||
RS*Gini | −1.94 | −1.92 | −0.63** | −0.47* | 10.58 | 6.53 | |||
MG*Overall Gini | −1.24 | −0.72 | 0.02 | −0.16 | −0.16 | 0.15 | 24.67*** | 16.46* | 10.26 |
PE*Overall Gini | 1.87*** | 0.29 | 0.19 | 0.60*** | 0.27 | 0.24 | −8.87 | 2.16 | 2.20 |
SP*Overall Gini | 0.20 | −0.15 | 0.14 | 0.19 | −0.06 | 0.07 | −11.92*** | −2.11 | −1.64 |
RS*Overall Gini | 0.78 | 1.08 | −0.49 | 0.44* | 0.35 | −0.04 | −0.05 | 3.86 | 9.39*** |
MG*Voters | 005*** | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.04*** | 0.01** | 0.01* | −0.50** | 0.33 | 0.37* |
PE*Voters | 0.07** | 0.00 | −0.01 | 0.09*** | 0.06*** | 0.05*** | −2.97*** | −1.62** | −1.55** |
SP*Voters | 0.01 | −0.01 | −0.01 | 0.02*** | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.71*** | 0.47** | 0.46** |
RS*Voters | 0.04** | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.02** | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.15 | 0.27 | 0.25 |
Geographic controls | No | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes |
Educational controls | No | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes |
Observations | 440 | 440 | 440 | 440 | 440 | 440 | 440 | 440 | 440 |
R
2
| 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.99 | 0.99 | 0.99 | 0.95 | 0.96 | 0.96 |
4.3 De Facto Institutional Environments and Structural Change
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Log GDP per capita
| ||||||
Immigration | Agriculture | Industrialization | ||||
MG*Gini | 2.38*** | 1.41*** | 2.48*** | 1.26** | 2.28*** | 1.22** |
PE*Gini | −0.19 | −0.31 | −0.29 | −0.34 | −0.15 | −0.21 |
SP*Gini | 0.46 | 0.37 | 1.15*** | 0.60* | 0.94*** | 0.54 |
RS*Gini | −0.99* * * | −0.82*** | −1.27*** | −0.88*** | −1.25*** | −0.95*** |
MG*Voters | 0.05*** | 0.02 | 0.04** | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.01 |
PE*Voters | 0.06 | 0.00 | 0.04 | −0.01 | 0.00 | −0.02 |
SP*Voters | 0.04* | 0.01 | −0.00 | −0.01 | −0.02 | −0.01 |
RS*Voters | 0.06*** | 0.03** | 0.04** | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.01 |
Immigration (1920, %) | 0.02*** | 0.01*** | ||||
Agricultural activities (1920, %) | −0.01*** | −0.01 | ||||
Industrial sector (1920, %) | 0.07*** | 0.04** | ||||
Geographic controls | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes |
Educational controls | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes |
Observations | 440 | 440 | 440 | 440 | 440 | 440 |
R
2
| 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
4.4 Inequality Yesterday and Inequality Today
(1) | (2) | (3) | |
---|---|---|---|
All CTU | |||
Gini (2000) | |||
MG*Gini | 0.01 | 0.06* | 0.06 |
PE*Gini | 0.06* | 0.06* | 0.06* |
SP*Gini | −0.02 | 0.02 | 0.01 |
RS*Gini | 0.19*** | 0.14*** | 0.14*** |
MG*Voters | −0.00 | 0.00 | −0.00 |
PE*Voters | 0.01*** | 0.01** | 0.01** |
SP*Voters | 0.01*** | 0.00** | 0.00 |
RS*Voters | 0.00 | 0.00** | 0.00* |
Geographic controls | No | Yes | Yes |
Educational controls | No | No | Yes |
Observations | 440 | 440 | 440 |
R
2
| 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |