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2017 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

4. Instrumentation and Equipment

verfasst von : Stéphane Sainson

Erschienen in: Electromagnetic Seabed Logging

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

This chapter describes in detail (electrical, electronic, mechanical and signal processing characteristics) the various measuring instruments used in prospecting, i.e., the electrical current sources and field receivers. The transmitters are mobile dipoles of very low frequency able to deliver currents of several hundred amperes under the water, or even telluric sources caused by magnetic storms (solar wind) or atmospheric storms (Schumann resonance). Seabed fixed receivers are vector electrometers and magnetometers able to record the horizontal components of electric and magnetic fields in a bandwidth covering the frequencies of 0.01 to 10 Hz. The accuracies of these low noise instruments (several \( \mathrm{nV}/\sqrt{\mathrm{Hz}} \)) are respectively about one \( \upmu \mathrm{V}/\sqrt{\mathrm{Hz}}/\mathrm{m} \) and one nT. Generally the signal-to-background noise ratio is very favorable to the detection and can reach a factor of 1000. Finally, we briefly mention the operational means and procedures with the different equipment and a few elements of signal processing used during the seabed logging survey.

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Vorheriges Kapitel Metrology and Environment

Nächstes Kapitel Interpretations and Modeling

These instruments, such as SYSCAL pro Deep Marine, are generally marine versions of onshore resistivity meters (waterproof and treated against marine corrosion according to international standards). The reader may refer to conventional prospecting works (Koefoed 1979 and more recent works) and to the instructions of the manufacturers (Iris instruments, Scintrex, etc.) for more information on these materials.

That is the tendency of the device to be closer to the actual value of the measured events. Errors affecting the correctness come from stable defects of the tool, poor or inadequate calibrations, a bad choice of scales of corrections, etc.

The sensitivity is the ratio of the variations INPUT/OUTPUT.

The metrological quality, which can be considered as the ability of the instrument to give consistent results for the requested requirements, also depends on many factors such as:

The uncertainty, which represents the amplitude of the field of measurements in which the true value is located with a given probability (degree of dispersion)
The repeatability, which is an in situ estimation of the accuracy. It is the difference between two distinct measurements of the same event, made under the same conditions and with the same sensor
The stability, which is the ability of the meter to give the same results in the same conditions
The reproducibility, which is the ability to differentiate two measures with the same method under the same conditions with different equipment and possibly different personnel, etc.

These intrinsic qualities can be evaluated theoretically for some of them and practically for others (calibration, control section, etc.). They can be related to reliability studies (fault tree or FT, mean time between failure or MTBF, etc.).

Longer times correspond to magnetic surveys used in global geodynamics (very deep layers).

Profiling in a continuous regime used, from the 1930s onward, wireline equipment (electrical coring), slightly modified, whose characteristic cables (named flute) was their tightness. The measuring equipment consisted of a potentiometer located on land or in a boat (see Introduction, photographs, Figs. 1.7, 1.8 and 1.9).

At the same time, magnetic variometers of more or less long periods were built and tested (see Sect. 5.7).

Similar methods have been proposed in the past (see Chap. 1, Sect. 6.5).

In the future, the source may be contained in an AUV, which would have the advantage of removing the source from the surface means and could operate under any weather or bad oceanic conditions, or even under the ice.

A parachute shaped and centrally holed flexible piece.

The emission is on a spectrum that lies below the band ELF (extremely low frequency) reserved for underwater communications (military submarines), which extend to the ranges VLF (very low frequency) and LF (low frequency).

Root mean square, or RMS, i.e., literally the square root of the mean square.

It is a fundamental principle of the transmission of electrical energy (e.g., high power line).

With this arrangement, it is more difficult to obtain high powers.

We have seen (Appendix 2) that most of the energy is transmitted through this way.

At the considered frequencies (LF), the resistance in the marine environment cannot be considered as an impedance. The capacity aspect is negligible in this case (see Appendix).

It may be recalled here that the alternating current tends to flow in the periphery of the cable (skin) and all the more easily when the frequency is high.

Ideally it is desirable to have perfect impedance matching between the different elements and emission bodies. The transformer can then automatically play that role especially when the electrical characteristics vary over time.

A feature difficult to obtain for such length.

The impedance is defined here as a function of angular frequency (ω).

Flow of solar plasma from the coronal mass ejection (CME) of ionized gas escaping from the sun at speeds of more than 2000 km/s according to cycles of intense activity and more or less long quiet periods (of about 11 years).

Geomagnetic usual unit: 1 γ is equal to 10⁻⁹ Tesla (T) or 1 nanoTesla (nT). 1 T is equal to 1 Wb/m². The earth’s field in France has a total amplitude close to 50,000 γ and its horizontal component is about 20,000 γ.

These variations have a pseudoperiodicity of 26 days, corresponding to the rotation period of the sun, and are limited to the illuminated face of the earth.

An effect demonstrated for the first time in 1879 by British scientists from the Post Office Telegraph Services (Mathias et al. 1924).

The phenomenon was discovered theoretically in 1948 (Schumann 1948) and proved experimentally 5 years later (Schumann and Koenig 1954). For a more theoretical approach, the interested reader may refer to the work of Professor Wait (Wait 1996).

Beyond that distance, the atmosphere acts as a filter. Below it, the long length electromagnetic waves are reflected.

In a given direction, the average field is not determined by the derivative of the potential, but by a potential difference between two points.

The contact between two different phases (liquid for seawater, solid for the electrodes) causes electrochemical phenomena at the interface, inducing electromotive parasitic forces. The electrodes of M/MCl (M for metal) type were preferentially chosen because of the presence of high concentrations of chloride ions (Cl⁻) in seawater. The electrodes of Ag/AgCl type have an annual drift of a few millivolts per year. We could also use the combination Pb/PbCl₂. This one indeed has a lower drift of the order of 0.2 mV/month and a starting polarization of less than 0.2 mV with a thermal drift of about 200 μV/°C (Petiau 2000). These electrodes are used on MT NOMADE™ electrometers from Ifremer.

The invention of the unpolarizable electrode or nonpolarizing electrode is due to the Italian Professor Matteucci for his studies on telegraphy (Matteucci 1862) and was more specifically applied to the exploration of ore deposits in 1882 by Barus in the USA (Barus 1882) and then in 1912 by Conrad Schlumberger for the method of spontaneous polarization or the PS method (Schlumberger 1913).

The mechanism of unpolarizable electrodes is based on Nernst’s formulation (see Ives and Janz 1961).

The advantage of the differential amplifier lies in the fact that its inputs are perfectly matched thanks to the symmetrical arrangement. This has the effect of almost completely compensating for drifts of low periods. This device also has the advantage of eliminating similar parasitic voltages simultaneously affecting the two inputs of the amplifier stage. At this point one can choose differential amplifiers with floating inputs and incorporated gain whose output voltage relative to the mass of the electronic system is directly proportional to the difference of the input voltages. Current technologies allow us to produce this kind of amplifier. These amplifiers also have programmable gains up to 1000, which allow us to raise tension very quickly without significantly affecting the signal by the instrumental noises that would occasion a conventional amplifier chain. For example, one can use a precison instrumentation amplifier, such as the Analog Devices AD624.

Electromechanical or electronic switching allowing us to modulate the signal to a higher frequency and to restore it at the end of amplification by synchronous demodulation (Schwartz 1959). This eliminates then more or less long term drifts, characterizing, among others, electrochemical noises.

The sampling frequency is here dependent on the speed of movement of the transmitter and on the depth of immersion of the measuring devices, and partly sets the longitudinal resolution.

It is the same for the towed equipment.

This is what happens in measurement of the vertical component of the electric field (see Fig. 4.40 and Plate 4.3a).

In 1969 the US Navy filed a patent application for a primitive detection system using current measurements (Pittman and Stanford 1972). We do not know if this system has been used. However, all components, hardware and signal processing of the detection device are present (cf. Plate 4.1b).

Incidentally, I would like to thank very briefly the Schlumberger company, its subsidiary WesternGeco and especially its engineers, for, after 30 years, funding my research works and those of my colleagues, of interest … I hope therefore that the rigor and honesty that usually drive scientists will allow us to finally restore, in all objectivity, the scientific contributions of each.

The idea to channel the current through the sensor (ferromagnetic core) was included in the development of a magnetic sensor (Baxendale 1989).

We can use, for example, numerical resolution methods such as the finite element method (adapted to the nonlinear medium) or the boundary integral method, under the Neumann boundary conditions for the insulating part of the electrometer and the Dirichlet boundary conditions for the conductive portion of the electrodes. In 3D, this method has the advantage of taking into account the volume current density.

Below 1 Hz the noise level increases, particularly when the detector is used in mMT (see below).

This is generally the case for all passive detection methods and methods for listening to EM natural noises where a signal of very small amplitude is often drowned in high background noise.

For more information on noise measurement protocols, the reader may refer to the thesis of Mr. Urbain Rakotosoa UMPC (Rakotosoa 1989).

Moreover, these systems may have common telemetry devices, treatment, etc. (similar transfer frequencies).

In the case where the streamer is immersed at the surface, the speed of the water movements should also be taken into account (see Chap. 3, Sect. 6.9.2).

Processing by amplitude demodulation.

Prevents return current loops between transmitters and receivers, and galvanic couplings.

Vertical seismic profile.

Magnetic resonance equipment in rubidium vapor (Bloom 1962), potassium vapor developed at ENS Paris in the late 1960s (Mosnier 1967) or cesium vapor. The principle of these magnetometers is based on optical pumping and the Zeeman effect. Electrons in the atoms of a gas follow different orbits representing highter or lower energy levels. In an external magnetic field, these energy levels are split into energy sublevels or Zeeman states. The energy differences of the states are proportional to the strength of the magnetic field. Generally, the sensing component consists of an element vapor lamp, a filter to select one spectral line, a circular polarizer, a vapor cell and a photocell.

The normal components only change the field at the second order.

Recently CNES and ESA have used on their observation satellites (Swarm constellation) vector magnetometers calibrated by a pumping helium 4 scalar magnetometer (operation of the Zeeman effect) capable of measuring absolute magnitudes (without drift and bias) of the three components of the magnetic field (provider: CEA-LETI Grenoble).

The intensity of the magnetizing field M and the magnetic field H are related by the relation of proportionality: M = χ _m H, where χ_m is the magnetic susceptibility of the material, i.e., its ability to magnetize, and is equal to: χ _m = μ_r − 1.

The reader will find in the literature all the information necessary for the understanding of these instruments, widely used in the fields of submarine detection and geophysics (Delcourt 1990).

These magnetometers are briefly described in numerous applied geophysics works. The reader will find, however, a comprehensive description of these materials in the work of Dr. Geyger (Geyger 1964).

Circular coils placed on either side of the conductive amagnetic clevis carrying the magnet, in which an electric current flows.

SQUID: superconducting quantum interference device. We can also imagine the use of the radiofrequency SQUID working at high temperature and developed in the late 1990s (Fagaly 2006).

Institut national des sciences de l’univers (National Institute of Sciences of the Universe): the French state agency responsible for coordinating research activities in the fields of earth sciences, oceans and space.

Geophysical Research Centre of Garchy of CNRS, based in the Nièvre state (France).

It is related to the travel speed v of the source (1.5–2 knots) and given by v/f _a. For example, at a speed of 1 m/s, and an acquisition at 1 Hz, the resolution will be 1 m. For a typical survey, during towing, data are collected at a spacing of 10–20 ms.

Note that frequencies above half the sampling frequency (or Nyquist frequency: f _N = f _a /2) generally introduce spectral overlapping, called aliasing. To remove this effect, before the sampling operation, we place a low pass analog filter or anti-aliasing filter whose cutoff frequency is then the highest frequency to be recorded.

There are several types of ADC, such as converters with weighted resistances, double-ramp converters, successive approximation converters, sigma/delta converters, or even-flash converters.

For further information, the reader can refer to books concerning works on measurement systems (Paratte and Robert 1996).

This in some way evaluates the mess in the data entry system. The entropy can be defined as a function proportional to the logarithm of the probability of a sequence of average data corresponding to a message, a sequence or a signature. The main interest of entropy is its additivity property. Indeed, when two signatures are composed, their probabilities are multiplied and their entropies are added. As, on other hand, amounts of information are also added, it is clear that the entropy is a convenient measure of the detectable amount of information and, more specifically, that which is necessary to describe its location and complexity.

The notion of POD was introduced in 1947 following the work, during the Second World War, on radar (Marcum 1947; Woodward 1953). These studies were designed to determine the probability of an event on the basis of hypothesis tests run from an objective criterion whose result was estimated by the joint probability of two types of errors with an antagonistic behavior (ignorance or appearance upon the detection of an event). Therefore, these works have been amplified as covering all areas of detection at large (Grigorakis 1997). In the oil sector, POD is mainly used for the processing of data for pipeline inspection by instrumented pigs (Sainson 2010).

Discrete spectral representation of the sampled signal (delimited time window).

We must remember that this process is legitimate only when the stationary character is present to a degree sufficient for the desired accuracy. This remark is essential to understand the limitations of these methods.

The autocorrelation developed in the late 1940s (Bode and Shannon 1950) is used as a function of time f(t) to measure the statistical dependence of a value f(t + τ) in relation to an initial value f(t). Then the autocorrelation maintains the frequency information but loses the phase information. It is a kind of similarity indicator between two fairly similar samples of the same signal, separated by t, and is constructed by convolving them together. If the random function f(t) is known up to time t, the possibilities of variation are then distributed according to a beam of more or less divergent curves.

For example, to the input of an amplifier, an infinitely short pulse characterized in this case by a Dirac can only give a signal spread in time (called an impulse response). The purpose of the convolution operation, which mathematically corresponds to a product, then consists of determining the shape of the output signal (of any sort and deformed by the meter), knowing in advance the impulse response of the system (assumed to be linear).

The reader will find additional information in the technical literature (Smith and Smith 1996).

This chain is similar to all radio localization oceanographic devices.

Underwater drones are already used for the monitoring of offshore installations such as wellheads and pipelines. For now, these robots have a mission of supervisory and long distance observation unlike ROVs (wire guided) dedicated to local tasks.

In this case, the resultant field is the sum of the fields generated by the different sources (superposition principle).

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Titel: Instrumentation and Equipment
verfasst von: Stéphane Sainson
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Buch: Electromagnetic Seabed Logging
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-45353-8

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-319-45355-2

Copyright-Jahr: 2017
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45355-2_4