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2018 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

15. Cost-Efficiency in Inter-State Dispute Settlement

verfasst von : Brian McGarry

Erschienen in: Integration and International Dispute Resolution in Small States

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

Rising costs in international dispute settlement may be viewed as an issue of access to justice. In particular, economic, environmental, or military crises may disproportionately affect developing States, which are in this manner rendered more vulnerable to higher volumes of claims. While cost-saving measures have taken on systemic importance in international dispute settlement across a range of party dynamics, they have arguably surfaced in the most varied ways in inter-State proceedings. The present chapter analyses the institutional, independent, and mutual paths toward greater cost-efficiency in such cases, and identifies specific innovations that can be adopted to better meet this objective. In so doing, the author highlights disputes in which small States with limited financial or human resources have promoted the growth of cost-saving strategies in litigation and arbitration.

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Vorheriges Kapitel International Litigation and the Caribbean Court of Justice

See generally Daly and Melikian (2013), pp. 211–224.

Asian Development Bank (2016), p. 163 (citing Thomas Wälde and others to assert that this “finding [is] in line with the sentiment of many legal scholars”). Available at https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/214136/aeir-2016.pdf. See generally Nottage (2016) (forthcoming, on file with the author).

See, e.g., the official definition used by the Commonwealth of Nations (“Small states are sovereign countries with a population of 1.5 million people or fewer”). Available at http://thecommonwealth.org/our-work/small-states.

See Murphy (2015), pp. 337–338.

Award of the Arbitral Tribunal in the First Stage of Proceedings (Territorial Sovereignty and the Scope of the Dispute) (Eritrea v Yemen) (1996) 22 RIAA 225, para 77.

Such principles mark an important step forward for the climate change legal regime but do not yet constitute “a basis for any liability or compensation” as a matter of treaty law. See ‘Adoption of the Paris Agreement’, FCCC/CP/2015/L.9, 12 December 2015 (Conference of the Parties, Twenty-first session, Paris, 30 November to 11 December 2015), Preamble, paras 48–50; cf., ibid., Article 8 (referring to the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts). Available at https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2015/cop21/eng/l09.pdf.

For the advantages of litigation vis-à-vis other forms of dispute settlement in the context of maritime boundary delimitation, see further Lathrop (2014), pp. 250, 255–258.

See List of cases referred to the court since 1946 by date of introduction. Available at http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?p1=3&p2=2.

See List of cases. Available at https://www.itlos.org/en/cases/list-of-cases/.

See Pending cases—Inter-State proceedings and Past cases (Partial list). Available at http://www.pcacases.com/web/allcases/.

See further Burgis (2009), p. 26. See generally Bien-Aime (1990), p. 671; O’Connell (1992).

See Bekker (1993), pp. 659, 661. See further United Nations (November 1989), pp. 1589–1594.

Current apportionments to the court mark a decrease from a revised 2014–2015 appropriation of over US$51 million to an estimated 2016–2017 appropriation of less than US$46 million. See Programme budget for biennium 2016–2017, A/70/6/Add.1, 15 June 2016, p. 137. Available at http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/70/6/Add.1.

See Zyberi (2008), p. 442.

See Secretary-General’s Trust Fund to Assist States in the Settlement of Disputes through the International Court of Justice: Report of the Secretary-General, A/59/372, 21 September 2004, Annex (‘Revised Terms of Reference, Guidelines and Rules of the Secretary-General’s Trust Fund to Assist States in the Settlement of Disputes through the International Court of Justice’). Available at https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N04/518/22/PDF/N0451822.pdf?OpenElement. According to Article 8 of the Revised Terms of Reference, Guidelines and Rules, the application for funding must include an attestation that the applicant does not contest the court’s jurisdiction, an itemised statement of the estimated costs for which assistance is requested, an undertaking to provide an audited final account of expenditures and refund any unused advance, and an indication of the amount of the requested funds that it wishes to receive in the form of an advance.

Ibid.

See Rosenne (2006), pp. 501–502, n. 103.

See Corell (1997), pp. 6, 7–8.

See Latest Reports of the Secretary-General. Available at http://www.un.org/law/trustfund/trustfund.htm.

Ibid.

See further Bekker (1998), p. 27; Merills (2005), pp. 328–329.

See Terms of Reference, Guidelines and Rules of the Secretary-General’s Trust Fund to Assist States in the Settlement of Disputes through the International Court of Justice (1989) United Nations, New York. Available at http://www.un.org/es/icj/pdf/eterms.pdf.

See further Anderson (2002), pp. 793, 799, n. 20.

This was disclosed by the Agent of Chad during oral hearings before the court. See further International Law Association (American Branch) Committee on Transnational Dispute Resolution (2002), pp. 234, 248, n. 28.

See Secretary-General Awards US$700,000.00 from Trust Fund to Assist States in Settlement of Disputes through International Court of Justice, Press Release, SG/2087/L/3070, 4 June 2004. Available at http://www.un.org/law/trustfund/press_release/English.htm.

See Project on International Courts and Tribunals (1997).

See Speech by H.E. Judge Gilbert Guillaume, President of the International Court of Justice, to the General Assembly of the United Nations, 29 October 2002. Available at http://www.icj-cij.org/court/index.php?pr=80&pt=3&p1=1&p2=3&p3=1.

In other words, these are cases in which jurisdiction is alleged to derive from a previously concluded treaty, or from the parties’ respective declarations pursuant to Article 36(2) of the Statute of the Court.

See Latest Reports of the Secretary-General. Available at http://www.un.org/law/trustfund/trustfund.htm.

See the 2016 Report of the Secretary-General, A/71/339, 16 August 2016. Available at http://docbox.un.org/DocBox/docbox.nsf/GetFile?OpenAgent&DS=A/71/339&Lang=E&Type=DOC.

See further Boisson de Chazournes (2006), pp. 291–292; Gautier (2013), pp. 73, 82–85.

See Oceans and the Law of the Sea, A/RES/55/7, 27 February 2001, Annex I (‘International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea Trust Fund: Terms of Reference’). Available at https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N00/559/81/PDF/N0055981.pdf?OpenElement. According to Article 7 of the Terms of Reference, the application for funding must include a description of the nature of the case before ITLOS, a statement of the estimated costs for which assistance is requested, and an undertaking to provide an audited final account of expenditures.

See International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea Trust Fund: List of offers of professional assistance pursuant to General Assembly resolution 55/7. Available at http://www.un.org/depts/los/itlos_new/itlostrusfundoffersassistance.pdf.

See, e.g., Trust fund for the Purpose of Facilitating the Preparation of Submissions to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf for Developing States, in particular the Least Developed Countries and Small Island Developing States, and Compliance with Article 76 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. Available at http://www.un.org/depts/los/clcs_new/trust_fund_article76.htm; Establishment of a Trust Fund to Assist in Financing the Participation of Members of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf from Developing Countries: Note by the Secretariat (1999) CLCS/16, 19 August 1999. Available at https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N99/243/34/PDF/N9924334.pdf?OpenElement. The General Assembly has more recently established trust funds to support participation in complementary treaty frameworks concerning the law of the sea. See, e.g., ‘Development of an internationally legally binding instrument under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction (2015) A/RES/69/292, 6 July 2015. Available at https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N15/187/55/PDF/N1518755.pdf?OpenElement.

See Oceans and the Law of the Sea (2001) A/RES/55/7, 27 February 2001, Annex I (‘International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea Trust Fund: Terms of Reference’). Available at https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N00/559/81/PDF/N0055981.pdf?OpenElement.

Ibid.

See Reports of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea. Available at http://www.un.org/Depts/los/meeting_states_parties/SPLOS_documents.htm.

See further Claypoole (2008), pp. 77, 91–92.

See Financial Assistance Fund. Available at https://pca-cpa.org/en/about/structure/faf/. See further Oduntan (2015), pp. 321–323.

See Permanent Court of Arbitration Financial Assistance Fund for Settlement of International Disputes: Terms of Reference and Guidelines, 11 December 1995. Available at https://pca-cpa.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/175/2016/02/Financial-Assistance-Fund-for-Settlement-of-International-Disputes.pdf. According to Article 6 of the Terms of Reference and Guidelines, the application for funding must include a copy of the parties’ dispute settlement agreement (and, in some instances, a description of the nature of the case), an itemised statement of the estimated costs for which assistance is requested, and an undertaking to provide an audited final account of expenditures.

See Jonkman (1997), pp. 229, 230.

Ibid.

Ibid. The current Members of the Board are current ICJ Vice-President Abdulqawi Ahmed Yusuf, Sir Kenneth Keith and the Honorable Bernardo Sepúlveda-Amor (both former Members of the ICJ), Prof. Ahmed El Kosheri (former Judge ad hoc of the ICJ), and the Honorable L. Yves Fortier (former Ambassador to the United Nations). See Financial Assistance Fund. Available at https://pca-cpa.org/en/about/structure/faf/.

See Annual Reports. Available at https://pca-cpa.org/en/about/annual-reports/.

See Daly and Melikian (2013), pp. 211, 221–222.

See further Baetens and Yotova (2011), pp. 417, 436.

See Daly and Melikian (2013), pp. 211, 223.

Ibid.

See 2008 PCA Annual Report, para 32. Available at https://pca-cpa.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/175/2015/12/PCA-annual-report-2008.pdf; 2009 PCA Annual Report, para 27. Available at https://pca-cpa.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/175/2015/12/PCA-annual-report-2009.pdf.

See Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan (2002).

See further Baetens and Yotova (2011), pp. 417, 436–437.

See further Romano (2006), pp. 189, 199.

Ibid.

See Bloomberg Philanthropies (2015).

See generally Hébié (2016). As regards inter-state proceedings, see further Alschner and Charlotin (2016), p. 48 (contrasting the trend among OECD countries to “draw on in-house lawyers from their respective national ministries to staff legal teams in ICJ litigation” with a tendency among developing states to hire foreign counsel in such proceedings). Available at https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2832148. As regards investor-state proceedings, see further Raviv (2015), p. 712 (reasoning that “[h]iring and training several government lawyers to focus on investment disputes is not an excessive burden”); see also Calvert (2016) (discussing frequent investment claim respondent Argentina and noting evidence that its “in-house legal team has enhanced its effectiveness over time according to its corporate opponents”). Available at https://www.iisd.org/itn/2016/02/29/state-strategies-for-the-defence-of-domestic-interests-in-investor-state-arbitration-julia-calvert/.

See United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (2016).

Ibid.

See Hamilton Shirley Amerasinghe Memorial Fellowship on the Law of the Sea: Information Note. Available at http://www.un.org/depts/los/technical_assistance/hsa_fellowship/amerasinghe_fellowship.htm.

See Articles 40 & 41 of the 2010 UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules; cf. Articles 40 & 41 of the 2012 PCA Arbitration Rules.

In one case, an arbitrator in PCA-administered proceedings agreed to work for US$80 per hour. See Daly and Melikian (2013), pp. 211, 220.

Contemporary inter-state arbitrations adhering to this general principle have included Bay of Bengal Maritime Boundary Arbitration between Bangladesh and India, Chagos Marine Protected Area Arbitration (Mauritius v United Kingdom), The “Enrica Lexie” Incident (Italy v India), Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission, Guyana v Suriname, Indus Waters Kishenganga Arbitration (Pakistan v India), and Railway Land Arbitration (Malaysia v Singapore).

See Hearing held at the Peace Palace, in The Hague, Press Release, 2 March 2016. Available at http://www.pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1593.

See generally Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v Uruguay), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010, Joint Dissenting Opinion of Judges Al-Khasawneh and Simma, pp. 108–120.

See Arbitration Agreement between The Government of Sudan and The Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army on Delimiting Abyei Area, 7 July 2008. Available at https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/675.

See further Sudan Tribune (2009).

On the ‘arbitralisation’ of ICJ procedure, see generally Abi-Saab (2007), pp. 3–16.

See further Financial Times (2015).

See further Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996, Separate Opinion of Judge Guillaume, pp. 287–288 (“I wondered whether, in such circumstances, the requests for opinions could still be regarded as coming from the Assemblies which had adopted them or whether, piercing the veil, the Court should not have dismissed them as inadmissible”).

See Latest Reports of the Secretary-General. Available at http://www.un.org/law/trustfund/trustfund.htm.

Ibid.

On the attention paid by the court to the General Assembly’s influence on the financial health of its operations, see Speech by H.E. Judge Gilbert Guillaume, President of the International Court of Justice, to the General Assembly of the United Nations, 26 October 2000. Available at http://www.icj-cij.org/court/index.php?pr=%2084&pt=3&p1=1&p2=3&p3=1 (“It is for you to decide whether the Court, the principal judicial organ of the United Nations, is to die a slow death or whether you will give it the wherewithal to live”).

See 2009 PCA Annual Report, para 27. Available at https://pca-cpa.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/175/2015/12/PCA-annual-report-2009.pdf.

As of June 2017, the court enjoys a healthy docket of 15 pending cases. Of these cases, 14 involve at least one party which appears on the OECD DAC List of Aid Recipients. See further Romano (2002), pp. 536, 554, n. 54 (“[T]here is no proven instance of a State that could not proceed because of lack of legal expertise or funds”). But see Espósito Massicci (2012), pp. 1598, 1604 (considering that the ICJ Trust Fund suffers from “under-utilisation”).

An exception must be drawn here in respect of the 2004 joint application of the parties in Frontier Dispute (Benin/Niger). See Secretary-General Awards US$700,000.00 from Trust Fund to Assist States in Settlement of Disputes through International Court of Justice, Press Release, SG/2087/L/3070, 4 June 2004. Available at http://www.un.org/law/trustfund/press_release/English.htm.

As of June 2017, 72 states have deposited such declarations (albeit many with several reservations and conditions). These states include a fairly balanced mix of states large and small, developed and developing. The United Kingdom remains the last Permanent Member of the Security Council with a declaration in force.

See Secretary-General’s Trust Fund to Assist States in the Settlement of Disputes through the International Court of Justice: Report of the Secretary-General, A/59/372, 21 September 2004, Annex (‘Revised Terms of Reference, Guidelines and Rules of the Secretary-General’s Trust Fund to Assist States in the Settlement of Disputes through the International Court of Justice’), Art. 6(a)(ii)(b). Available at https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N04/518/22/PDF/N0451822.pdf?OpenElement. See further Financial Assistance to Parties. Available at http://www.icj-cij.org/court/index.php?p1=1&p2=7 (“The fund is today open to States in all circumstances where the jurisdiction of the Court (or the admissibility of the application) is not or is no longer the subject of dispute on their part”) (emphasis added).

See the Rules of Court (1978), Art. 79(9).

Any UN Member State may request to intervene in a pending case in which it considers that it has “an interest of a legal nature which may be affected by the decision in the case”. See the Statute of the Court, Art. 62. States may request to intervene in the case either as a non-party or as a party, the latter requiring a relevant jurisdictional link to the parties and resulting in, inter alia, a multilaterally binding Judgment as regards the scope of the intervention. See Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador/Honduras), Application for Permission to Intervene, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1990, pp. 134–135, para 99). While the 2004 Terms of Reference for the ICJ Trust Fund refer to “financial assistance to States for expenses incurred in connection with […] a dispute submitted […]”, the spirit of the Terms of Reference and the relevance of certain aspects thereof arguably limit their application to the parties, rather than non-party participants.

It appears that such reform would have somewhat expedited the recently approved joint request for demarcation financing in Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Niger), in which the request for funds was made after the rendering of the 2013 Judgment of the Court. See Secretary-General’s Trust Fund to Assist States in the Settlement of Disputes through the International Court of Justice: Report of the Secretary-General, A/69/337, 21 August 2014, para 4. Available at https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N14/513/53/PDF/N1451353.pdf?OpenElement.

The prevalence of these cases before ITLOS is by design. See UNCLOS, Arts. 290 & 292.

See further Claypoole (2008), pp. 77, 91–92.

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Titel: Cost-Efficiency in Inter-State Dispute Settlement
verfasst von: Brian McGarry
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Buch: Integration and International Dispute Resolution in Small States
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-74572-5

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-319-74573-2

Copyright-Jahr: 2018
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74573-2_15

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