5.1 Introduction of Anaerobic Digestion Technology
5.1.1 Products of Anaerobic Digestion
Sources | The composition of biogas (%) | Sources | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CH4
| CO2
| O2
| N2
| H2S | ||
Landfills | 47–57 | 24–29 | < 1 | 1–17 | < 0.1 | Rasi et al. (2007) |
37–62 | 24–29 | < 1 | – | – | Allen et al. (1997) | |
45–55 | 30–40 | – | 51–5 | – | Jönsson et al. (2003) | |
Plant biomass | 55–58 | 37–38 | <1 | <1–2 | – | Rasi et al. (2007) |
48–65 | 36–41 | <1 | <17 | <0.1 | Rasi et al. (2007) | |
45–54 | – | – | – | – | Tran et al. (2014) | |
Sludge | 55–65 | 35–45 | – | <1 | – | Jönsson et al. (2003) |
57.8 | 38.6 | 0 | 3–7 | <0.1 | Spiegel and Preston (2003) | |
Pig manure | 55–65 | 35–45 | – | 0–3 | – | Polprasert and Koottatep (2007) |
42–59 | – | – | – | – | Tran et al. (2014) |
5.1.2 Anaerobic Digestion Process
5.1.2.1 Stage 1: Hydrolysis
5.1.2.2 Stage 2: Acid-Producing (Acidogenesis)
5.1.2.3 Stage 3: Acetic Acid-Producing (Acetogenesis)
5.1.2.4 Stage 4: Methane-Producing (Methanogenesis)
Reactants | Products | Organisms involved |
---|---|---|
4H2+HCO3
−+H+
| CH4+3H2O | Most methanogens |
4HCO2
−+H+ + H2O | CH4+3HCO3
−
| Many hydrogenotrophic methanogens |
2CH3COOH+HCO3
−
| 2CH3COO−+H+ + CH4+H2O | Methanosarcina and Methanothrix |
4CH3OH | 3CH4+HCO3
−+H2O+H+
| Methanosarcina and other methylotrophic methanogens |
5.1.3 Factors Affecting the Anaerobic Digestion Process
Factors | Range | Optimum value for methane production |
---|---|---|
Temperature | <20–60 °C | 35 °C |
pH | 6.6–7.6 | 7.0 |
Redox potential | ≤150 mV | ≤250 mV |
Salinity | 0–8% | 0.84.5% |
C/N ratio | 20–40 | 20–30 |
Loading rate | 1–4 kg VS m3 day−1
| 1–4 kg VS m3 day−1
|
Retention time | 10–60 days | 10–30 days |
5.1.3.1 Temperature
-
Psychrophilic anaerobic digestion (<20 °C)
-
Mesophilic anaerobic digestion (20–45 °C)
-
Thermophilic anaerobic digestion (46–60 °C)
5.1.3.2 pH and Alkalinity
5.1.3.3 Redox Potential
5.1.3.4 Salinity
5.1.3.5 Carbon to Nitrogen (C/N) Ratio
Organic source | C/N ratio | Source |
---|---|---|
Rice straw | 44.0–74.2 | |
Water hyacinth | 12–42 | Ngan et al. (2011) |
Cow manure | 13.0–14.2 | |
Pig manure | 7.0; 10.8 | |
Chicken manure | 4.4; 7.0 |
5.1.3.6 Loading Rate and Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT)
5.1.3.7 Toxins
Substances | Toxic dose for AD bacteria | Sources |
---|---|---|
Volatile fatty acids | >10,000 mg L−1
| Wang et al. (2009) |
Oleate | >1700 mg L−1
| Angelidaki and Ahring (1992) |
Stearate | >1000 mg L−1
| Angelidaki and Ahring (1992) |
NH3
| >16,000 mg L−1
| Koster and Lettinga (1988) |
S2
−
| >145 mg L−1
| Parkin et al. (1990) |
Ca | >7000 mg L−1
| Ahn et al. (2006) |
Mg | >1000 mg L−1
| Gerardi (2003) |
K | >8000 mg L−1
| Kugelman and McCarty (1965) |
Na | >3500 mg L−1
| Gerardi (2003) |
Fe | >5 mg L−1
| Gerardi (2003) |
5.1.3.8 Dry Matter and Water Content
5.1.3.9 Stirring
5.1.3.10 Feedstock Pretreatment
5.1.3.11 Feedstock Size
5.2 AD Systems
5.2.1 Small-Scale Biogas Digesters
-
Constructed on-site plants: these plants are often made of brick, mortar and concrete.
-
Prefabricated plants (PBD): these plants are produced off-site and installed at the farms. They are made of fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP), tubular (known as bag plants or soft plastic plants), and hard plastics, such as hard polyvinyl chloride (PVC), acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), and modified plastics.
5.2.1.1 Biogas Plants Constructed On-Site
Digester type | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|
Top manhole (Chinese plant types) | Easy to enter the digester from the top | Top manhole is situated on top of gasholder and is prone to leakages |
Can withstand high pressures, therefore, can store more gas | Gas proofing of the dome requires special paints and skilled masons | |
Manhole at the outlet (Deenbandhu, Janata) | Has the highest load bearing capacity as the dome is a closed solid structure | Gas proofing of the dome requires special paints and skilled masons |
Cheaper than Chinese digester models due to optimized shape | ||
Floating drum | Drum is gastight | Higher investment and additional transport cost of drum |
Lower masonry skill requirement | Distance between inlet and outlet is relatively short which can result in preferential flow of manure shortening the HRT | |
High depth to width ratio which makes construction difficult in certain soils |
5.2.1.1.1 Fixed-Dome Digesters
5.2.1.1.2 Indian Digesters
5.2.1.1.3 Floating Drum Digesters
5.2.1.2 Prefabricated On-Site Biogas Plants
5.2.1.2.1 Fiber-Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Digesters
5.2.1.2.2 Hard-Plastic Digester Types
5.2.1.2.3 Soft-Plastic Digester Types
5.2.2 Medium- and Large-Scale Plants
5.3 Current Technology Developments and Practices for Rice Straw AD
5.3.1 Rice Straw Pretreatment for AD
5.3.1.1 Physical Pretreatment: Effect of Particle Size of Rice Straw
5.3.1.2 Chemical Pretreatment
5.3.1.2.1 Acid Pretreatment
-
Hydrolysis by weak acid: acid pretreatment at low concentration is one of the most effective methods for treating lignocellulosic biomass. This method includes two types of hydrolysis: (1) continuous hydrolysis at high temperature (above 160 °C) and a low loading rate (about 5–10% TS), and (2) batch hydrolysis at low temperatures (below 160 °C) with a high loading rate (about 10–40% TS). Acid sulfuric—sprayed into the lignocellulose, mixed, and then kept at from 160 to 200 °C for a few minutes—will remove hemicellulose. As a result, the efficiency of the hydrolysis process will be improved. Acid pretreatment showed the significant improvement of enzyme activity and removed hemicellulose effectively (Chen et al. 2007).
-
Strong acid pretreatment: High concentrations of H2SO4 and HCl are widely used for pretreatment of lignocellulose because these acids are powerful and they help hydrolyze cellulose (Sun and Cheng 2002) without the involvement of enzymes in the hydrolysis process. The disadvantage of this method is the corrosive properties of these acids and they should be recycled to reduce pretreatment costs.
5.3.1.2.2 Alkaline Pretreatment
-
Pretreatment with ammonia solution: This is an effective treatment for lignocellulose. An ammonia solution is highly selective in reactions with lignin in comparison to carbohydrates. One of the reactions in an ammonia solution with lignin is the breakdown of the C-O-lignin as well as the ether and ester bonds in the lignin complex (Binod et al. 2010). However, this solution is an environmentally-polluting compound and a corrosive chemical.
-
Pretreatment with calcium and sodium hydroxide: Lime (Ca(OH)2) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) are commonly used for the pretreatment process. During the process. Salts can be formed and incorporated into materials (González et al. 1986). The condition of this process is quite simple but the reaction time is relatively long. This pretreatment results in high solubility of lignin, especially for materials with low lignin content such as softwoods and weeds. The addition of air or oxygen during the pretreatment process can improve the efficiency of the lignin decomposition (Chang and Holtzapple 2000).
5.3.1.3 Biological Pretreatment
5.3.2 Current Practices of Rice Straw AD
5.3.2.1 Rice Straw Batch AD
5.3.2.2 Two-Stage AD
-
Two-stage AD;
-
Digestion temperature is maintained at from 35 to 55 °C;
-
Feedstock: chopped or sheared rice straw mixed with animal manure based on the ratio of 75 and 25% of organic dry matter, respectively;
-
Outputs: biogas for generating heat or power and digestate to produce solid and liquid fertilizer.