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2007 | Buch

Trace Elements from Soil to Human

verfasst von: Prof. Dr. hab. Alina Kabata-Pendias, Dr. Arun B. Mukherjee

Verlag: Springer Berlin Heidelberg

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SUCHEN

Über dieses Buch

The understanding of fundamental principles and phenomena that control the tra- fer of trace elements in soil-plant-human chain can contribute to the protection of the environment and human health. Many books, articles, and reports have already - scribed both fundamental and/or detail problems related to these topics. The intention of the authors is to provide up-to-date and selected interdisciplinary data for the concise presentation of existing knowledge on trace element transfer in the food chain, from soil to human. To accomplish this, the inclusion of appropriate data has been necessary. This book inevitably leaves publications of many investi- tors’ uncited. The authors regret that such approach was necessary. This volume is composed of two parts. Part I – Biogeochemistry of the Human - vironment – presents fundamental information on biogeochemical properties of en- ronmental compartments (soil, water, air, plants, humans) concerning trace elements. Part II – Biogeochemistry of Trace Elements – provides detailed data of the behavior and the occurrence of trace elements in the environment. There is a close relationship in the biogeochemical behavior between elements and their position in the Periodic System. Therefore, the format of this book follows the elemental sequences of the contemporary Periodic Table. The book provides data on the production usage, and on the occurrence of trace elements in soils, waters, air, plants, and humans (animals). Environmental stress, and biological functions of these elements are widely discussed.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Frontmatter

Introduction

Introduction
Abstract
The quality of human life depends on the chemical composition of food and of the surroundings. Recent improvements and new methods in analytical chemistry and increasing fields of environmental investigations have added substantially to our knowledge of the biogeochemistry of trace elements. In the last three decades there has been a real “explosion” of research data and various publications on occurrence and behavior of almost all trace elements including both elements of known and unknown physiological functions in organisms. In order to realize the vast significance of the biogeochemistry of trace elements, it is essential to gather the knowledge acquired over this period into one comprehensive compilation.

Biogeochemistry of the Human Environment

Frontmatter
Chapter I-1. The Biosphere
Abstract
The biosphere, also called the ecosphere, is the natural environment of living organisms and is the complex biological epidermis of the Earth whose dimensions are not precisely defined. It consists of the surficial part of the lithosphere, a lower part of the atmosphere, and the hydrosphere. Several ecosystems have been developed within the biosphere. Each ecosystem is a fundamental division of the total environment consisting of living organisms in a given area and having a balanced cycling of chemical elements and energy flow.
Chapter I-2. Soils
Abstract
Soil is not only a part of the ecosystem but also occupies a basic role for humans, because the survival of man is tied to the maintenance of its productivity. Soil functions as a filtering, buffering, storage, and transformation system protect against the effects of trace element pollution. Soil is effective in these functions only as long as its capacity for cation exchange and its biological activity are preserved. The frequent association of trace element pollution with acid deposition (mainly S, NOx, and HF) greatly complicates the overall effects in the environments.
Chapter I-3. Waters
Abstract
Freshwater. Water plays fundamental functions in processes both geochemical and biochemical. It is also a main carrier for all chemical elements; its amount and chemical composition control element cycling in water-air-soil systems. Thus, water is probably the most studied medium that governs the forms of trace elements of which investigated Cr, Se, Cu, As, Pb, Cd, and Hg have been studied the most frequently (Das et al. 2001).
Chapter I-4. Air
Abstract
Air pollution has arisen from both natural (meteoric, terrestrial, marine, volcanic, erosion and surface winds, forest fires, biogenic) and anthropogenic (coal and fuel combustion, industry, automobile, agriculture) sources. The steady global increase of trace element concentrations in the atmosphere has been observed and monitored in some countries for over 30 years. The majority of trace element emitters have been located in the northern hemisphere (mainly between 40–55† N). Buat-Ménard (1984) calculated that emissions of trace elements in the Northern Hemisphere are several times higher than in the Southern Hemisphere and are about 80% and 30%, respectively of anthropogenic origin. However, at the global scale, the natural emissions of trace elements cannot be neglected because large amounts of dusts containing trace elements come from natural sources. The estimated principal trace elements emissions for natural sources are as follow: 50% of Cr, Mn, and V, and >20% of Cu, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb and Zn. Volcanic activities may contribute over 20% of the atmospheric Cd, Hg, As, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Sb. Sea salt aerosols may also contribute about 10% of total trace element emissions to the atmosphere (Allen et al. 2001). Differentiating natural and anthropogenic sources of metals is not easy and some methods for monitoring various sources of metal pollution have been discussed (Dias and Edwards 2003).
Chapter I-5. Plants
Abstract
Trace element concentrations in plants reflect, in most cases, their abundance in growth media (soil, nutrient solution, water) and in ambient air. The metabolic fate and role of each element in plants can be characterized in relation to some basic processes such as: (i) uptake (absorption), (ii) transport within plants, concentration, and speciation, (iii) metabolic processes, (iv) deficiency and toxicity, and (v) ionic competition and interaction. Some trace elements, particularly trace metals such as Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, and Zn play a key role in plant metabolisms and are constituents of several enzymes.
Chapter I-6. Humans
Abstract
Organisms have developed their internal biochemistry in close connection to the composition of the natural environment. Humans, as well as all mammals, unlike prokaryotes and other lower organisms, are not able to adapt easily to any change in the chemical composition of their surroundings. Changes in trace element concentrations are of especially vital importance. The homeostatic balance of chemical elements in an organism is the basic requirement of good health. Ionic relationships within any organism are very fragile and governed by several factors. Their balance is controlled by factors such as bioavailability of an element, capability of tissues or organs to accumulate and excrete an element and by interactions among elements that might vary from antagonistic to synergistic depending mainly on their quantitative ratio.

Biogeochemistry of Trace Elements

Frontmatter
Chapter II-1. Trace Elements of Group 1 (Previously Group Ia)
Abstract
The trace alkali elements of Group 1 are: lithium (Li), rubidium (Rb), and cesium (Cs). Their common characteristic is a single electron in the outermost energy level and highly reactive chemical behavior. These cations do not usually form complex ionic species but can be bound in some chelates and organometallic compounds. Although their properties differ (Table II-1.1), they are quite similar, especially Rb and Cs, in their behavior in crystallochemical and geochemical processes. Lithophilic elements, Li, Rb, and Cs, are closely associated with the major crustal components and are likely to enter silicate minerals.
Chapter II-2. Trace Elements of Group 2 (Previously Group IIa)
Abstract
The trace elements of Group 2, beryllium (Be), strontium (Sr), and barium (Ba), belong to the alkaline earths and behave similarly to Ca and Mg. Their physical properties, especially sizes of their ionic radii are fairly similar to those of Ca, and they may substitute for each other, however, the small ionic radius of Be prevents its replacement by other cations (Table II-2.1). All the alkaline earths are associated with the carbon cycle that strongly controls their behavior in the terrestrial environment. Radium (Ra), which occurs as several radionuclides, also belongs to this group, and is a product after the decay chain of U and Th.
Chapter II-3. Trace Elements of Group 3 (Previously Group IIIb)
Abstract
Geochemical and biochemical properties of the elements of Group 3, as well as their abundance in the biosphere are highly divergent. Two elements, scandium (Sc) and yttrium (Y) are rather rare in the environment, and usually exhibit an affinity for oxygen and their oxidation state is mainly +3 (Table II-3.1). Together with two other elements of this group, lanthanum (La) and actinum (Ac), two subgroups of elements are distinguished as: lanthanides and actinides, of which many elements are either natural or artificial radionuclides.
Chapter II-4. Trace Elements of Group 4 (Previously Group IVb)
Abstract
The trace elements of Group 4 are titanium (Ti), zirconium (Zr), and hafnium (Hf). Titanium is considered a trace element only because of its low concentrations in plant and animal tissues. The physical and chemical properties of these metals differ (Table II-4.1), but they all are widely distributed in both litho- and biosphere. However, their biochemical functions are hardly known.
Chapter II-5. Trace Elements of Group 5 (Previously Group Vb)
Abstract
Geochemical characteristics of the metals of Group 5, vanadium (V), niobium (Nb) and tantalum (Ta), are variable, although all elements exhibit mainly lithophilic tendencies. Vanadium is widely distributed in geochemical environments where it forms both cationic and anionic compounds. Two elements, niobium and tantalum have very similar atomic radius and resemble each other in geochemical properties (Table II-5.1). Both metals are rather rare in the biosphere (Table II-5.2), are highly associated with Fe, Ti, Mn and Zr, and are likely to be concentrated in polymetallic concretions in the ocean bottom.
Chapter II-6. Trace Elements of Group 6 (Previously Group VIb)
Abstract
The trace metals of the Group 6, chromium (Cr), molybdenum (Mo), and tungsten (W), have strong lithophilic tendencies. They have variable oxidation states, possess bimodal redox behavior in terrestrial and aquatic environments, and are likely to be present in two oxidation states, +3 and +6 (Table II-6.1). Metals of this group have the propensity to form oxyanions and coordinate only weakly with other common environmentally ligands such as Cl or OH.
Chapter II-7. Trace Elements of Group 7 (Previously Group VIIb)
Abstract
The elements of Group 7 are manganese (Mn), technetium (Tc) and rhenium (Re). Only Mn is essential to living organisms. Technetium is a by-product of nuclear fuel processing and occurs as unstable radionuclides with variable but mainly short half-lives (from seconds to years). Rhenium is highly dispersed in the environment. All elements of this group have variable valences (Table II-7.1) and exhibit both lithophile and chalcophile characters.
Chapter II-8. Trace Elements of Group 8 (Previously Part of Group VIII)
Abstract
According to the previous nomenclature system of the Periodic Tables, the elements of the three groups of the Table: 8, 9, and 10 were included in one VIII group. The elements of the first subgroup (triad) were the so-called: iron family metals (Fe, Co and Ni). Two next triads contained noble metals of the platinum-group (Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt). The old system referred to chemical and geochemical properties of the elements and therefore it was easier to compare and describe these elements. However, the new nomenclature system, as obligatory, will be followed in the text.
Chapter II-9. Trace Elements of Group 9 (Previously Part of Group VIII)
Abstract
The elements of Group 9 are cobalt (Co), rhodium (Rh), and iridium (Ir). Cobalt belongs to the iron family of metals that include also Fe and Ni, whereas Rh and Ir are noble metals of the platinum group (PGMs).
Chapter II-10. Trace Elements of Group 10 (Previously Part of Group VIII)
Abstract
Group 10 contains three elements: nickel (Ni), palladium (Pd), and platinum (Pt). Nickel belongs to the iron family that also includes Fe and Co, whereas Pd and Pt are noble metals of the PGMs.
Chapter II-11. Trace Elements of Group 11 (Previously Group Ib)
Abstract
The Group 11 is composed of copper (Cu), silver (Ag), and gold (Au). Silver and Au belong to the so-called noble metals. All these metals occur in variable oxidation stages, mainly +1, and +2, (Table II-11.1). Copper and Ag reveal chalcophilic tendencies whereas Au is siderophilic.
Chapter II-12. Trace Elements of Group 12 (Previously Group IIb)
Abstract
The Group 12 consists of zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), and mercury (Hg). These metals have quite a low abundance in the Earth’s crust. These metals form compounds in which their oxidation states are usually not higher than +2 and easily form metal-metal (+M-M+) bonds (Table II-12.1). The strength of the bond increases down the group, in the following order: Hg < Cd < Zn. The Zn 2 2+ and Cd 2 2+ ions are highly unstable, however, the +1 state of Hg is quite stable compared with the other two elements. The toxicity of Cd and Hg is well known, whereas Zn has enormous biological importance.
Chapter II-13. Trace Elements of Group 13 (Previously Group IIIa)
Abstract
The Group 13 consists of five elements: boron (B), aluminum (Al), gallium (Ga), indium (In), and thallium (TI) (Table II-13.1). These elements are characterized by having three electrons in their outer energy levels, but reflect a wide range in the occurrence and behavior. The geochemistry of these widely distributed elements is quite complicated. Among them, only B is metalloid and plays a significant role in plants. Aluminum, being one of the basic constituents of the lithosphere, reveals amphoteric properties. Three other trace metals are widely distributed in the lithosphere and, due to their special properties, share an important position in the field of electronic industry.
Chapter II-14. Trace Elements of Group 14 (Previously Group IVa)
Abstract
Trace elements of the Group 14 are: silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn) and lead (Pb). Silicon, in combination with oxygen, is the basic non-metallic component of all rocks and is considered as a trace element only in respect to its biochemical role. It is the second most abundant element in the lithosphere. It performs an important role in connective tissues, especially in bone and cartilage and it is believed to have played, together with carbon, the crucial function in processes of the first synthesis of proteins (Sedlak 1967). The next three elements, Ge, Sn, and Pb are metals, which show chalcophilic properties and occur in the environment in two oxidation states, +2 and +4 (Table II-14.1).
Chapter II-15. Trace Elements of Group 15 (Previously Group Va)
Abstract
The Group 15 is composed of semi-metallic elements including arsenic (As), antimony (Sb) and bismuth (Bi). The elements have similar structure and the same symmetry and some similar properties (Table II-15.1). Due to decreased electronegativity, proper metallic character has not been bestrode on As and Sb for which they are often referred to as metalloid which means that these elements have both properties of metals and non-metals. In many ways, As is similar to phosphorous (P), especially in aerated systems.
Chapter II-16. Trace Elements of Group 16 (Previously Group VIa)
Abstract
The Group 16 of the Periodic Table is composed of only two stable trace elements: selenium (Se) and tellurium (Te) which resemble S in a number of geochemical properties, however their behavior in the environment is more complex. Polonium (Po), a natural isotope of the U-Ra transformation chain also belongs to this group.
Chapter II-17. Trace Elements of Group 17 (Previously Group VIIa)
Abstract
The Group 17 of the Periodic Table is composed of three trace elements: fluorine (F), bromine (Br), and iodine (I). To this group of elements, called halogens, belongs also chlorine (Cl) which is relatively common in the biosphere, but some authors have treated it as a trace element. Iodine is the least reactive of the elements in this group. The last element of this group, astatine (At), occurs as unstable radioactive isotope of very short lives (the longest half-life of 209At is 8.1 h).
Backmatter
Metadaten
Titel
Trace Elements from Soil to Human
verfasst von
Prof. Dr. hab. Alina Kabata-Pendias
Dr. Arun B. Mukherjee
Copyright-Jahr
2007
Verlag
Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Electronic ISBN
978-3-540-32714-1
Print ISBN
978-3-540-32713-4
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-32714-1