Skip to main content
Erschienen in: Policy Sciences 3/2014

01.09.2014

Experiment-based policy making or conscious policy design? The case of urban housing reform in China

verfasst von: Ciqi Mei, Zhilin Liu

Erschienen in: Policy Sciences | Ausgabe 3/2014

Einloggen

Aktivieren Sie unsere intelligente Suche, um passende Fachinhalte oder Patente zu finden.

search-config
loading …

Abstract

The public policy literature has long debated whether policy change results from conscious policy design or is contingent upon a political process involving both state and non-state actors. An experiment-based policy-making model based on China’s experience attempts to reconcile such debate by arguing that policy makers can consciously make policies without deliberately designing them. That is, policy makers can encourage or initiate multiple small-scale experiments that will cumulatively translate into incremental policy changes. Through a case study of urban housing policy changes in China, this paper investigates the underlying logic of incremental policy changes, specifically the role of policy makers in successive policy experimentation. Our case study illustrates that the role of local policy experimentation has been overestimated because the central government controls the experimental variables, judges what constitutes the success of the experiment, and chooses which experiments are replicated at the national level.

Sie haben noch keine Lizenz? Dann Informieren Sie sich jetzt über unsere Produkte:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

  • über 102.000 Bücher
  • über 537 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

  • Automobil + Motoren
  • Bauwesen + Immobilien
  • Business IT + Informatik
  • Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
  • Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
  • Finance + Banking
  • Management + Führung
  • Marketing + Vertrieb
  • Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe
  • Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

  • über 67.000 Bücher
  • über 340 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

  • Bauwesen + Immobilien
  • Business IT + Informatik
  • Finance + Banking
  • Management + Führung
  • Marketing + Vertrieb
  • Versicherung + Risiko




Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Fußnoten
1
See Rose (1991).
 
2
See Thelen (2004), Van der Heijden (2011).
 
3
See Hacker (2004, p. 248).
 
4
Both are phrases famously used by Chinese reform leaders to champion gradualism and pragmatism as the principles of China’s economic reform. “Cross the river by groping for the stone (under foot),” or Mo zhe shi tou guo he in Chinese, was first used by Chen Yun. At an official party central work conference on December 16, 1980, Chen said, “to be sure, reform necessitates certain theoretical research, economic statistics, and economic forecast; however, more importantly is to start with experiment and to sum up experiences at all times, that is, to ‘cross the river by groping for the stone’.” The “cat theory” refers to Deng’s famous metaphor for pragmatism, which he used even before the reform era began in 1972, “it doesn't matter whether a cat is black or white, as long as it catches mice.”
 
5
See Cashore and Howlett (2007).
 
6
For China, see Heilmann (2008b). For the former Soviet Union, see Markevich and Zhuravskaya (2011), also see Xu (2011).
 
7
This number includes new or second-hand commodity housing (26 and 5 %, respectively), government-subsidized economic housing (5.1 %), privatized public housing (17.3 %), and self-built housing (16.4 %).
 
8
In 1978 and 1980, Deng Xiaoping made two famous speeches to call for reforms on the welfare housing system, which set out a guiding framework for subsequent housing reform policy making.
 
9
For instance, cities may determine, according to local conditions, exactly how much increase can be made to the rent and which components may be included in rent calculation. Thus, some cities decided to use “cost rent,” whereas other cities introduced the “standard rent” concept (Wang and Murie 1999, pp. 168–169). In the case of sales of public houses, cities may determine the amount and kind of discounts given to employees.
 
10
For instance, in Bengbu, one of the five pilot cities in 1986, public housing rent was only 0.073 yuan (Chinese currency) per sq. meters prior to the rent reform, which was increased to 1.18 yuan per sq. meters afterward. Other cities have similar experiences (China Research Institute for Urban Housing Reform 2002).
 
11
The former case includes the State Anju Project, whereas the latter includes the example of the Housing Provident Fund, which was first experimented in Shanghai in 1991 and became an important part of the national reform agenda.
 
12
Interviews with Ministry of Construction officials, July 11, 2005.
 
13
Interviews with Ministry of Construction officials, July 11, 2005.
In fact, two different policies models were proposed for the economical housing program. The State Council chose a homeownership-oriented policy model instead of the rental housing approach that was proposed by some Ministry of Construction officials, precisely because the former model served better the pro-growth, pro-market agenda of the central government (Department of Housing and Real Estate, MOC 2005).
 
14
For example, China has experimented with semi-free election at the village level since the 1980s. While this experiment has been allowed by the central government and diffused to almost all villages in China, such experiments have not advanced beyond the village level, with a few exception at the township level.
 
Literatur
Zurück zum Zitat Baumgartner, F. R., & Jones, B. D. (2002). Policy dynamics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Baumgartner, F. R., & Jones, B. D. (2002). Policy dynamics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Zurück zum Zitat Baumgartner, F. R., & Jones, B. D. (2010). Agendas and instability in American politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Baumgartner, F. R., & Jones, B. D. (2010). Agendas and instability in American politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Zurück zum Zitat Berman, E. P. (2012). Explaining the move toward the market in US academic science: How institutional logics can change without institutional entrepreneurs. Theory and society, 41(3), 261–299.CrossRef Berman, E. P. (2012). Explaining the move toward the market in US academic science: How institutional logics can change without institutional entrepreneurs. Theory and society, 41(3), 261–299.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Cashore, B., & Howlett, M. (2007). Punctuating which equilibrium? Understanding thermostatic policy dynamics in Pacific Northwest forestry. American Journal of Political Science, 51(3), 532–551.CrossRef Cashore, B., & Howlett, M. (2007). Punctuating which equilibrium? Understanding thermostatic policy dynamics in Pacific Northwest forestry. American Journal of Political Science, 51(3), 532–551.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat China Research Institute for Urban Housing Reform (Ed.). (2002). Collection of research briefs on the housing reform (1995.8–2002.10). December 2002. Internal Publications. China Research Institute for Urban Housing Reform (Ed.). (2002). Collection of research briefs on the housing reform (1995.82002.10). December 2002. Internal Publications.
Zurück zum Zitat Chung, J. H. (2000). Central control and local discretion in China. New York: Oxford University Press. Chung, J. H. (2000). Central control and local discretion in China. New York: Oxford University Press.
Zurück zum Zitat Davis, D. (2003). From welfare benefit to capitalized asset. In R. Forrest & J. Lee (Eds.), Chinese urban housing reform (pp. 183–196). London: Routledge. Davis, D. (2003). From welfare benefit to capitalized asset. In R. Forrest & J. Lee (Eds.), Chinese urban housing reform (pp. 183–196). London: Routledge.
Zurück zum Zitat Deng, X. (1980). Talks on the construction sector and housing problem. Speech given on April 2nd, 1980 when meeting with other central government leaders, which was compiled by the former Ministry of Urban and Rural Construction and Environmental Protection and published by the People’s Daily on April 15, 1984. Deng, X. (1980). Talks on the construction sector and housing problem. Speech given on April 2nd, 1980 when meeting with other central government leaders, which was compiled by the former Ministry of Urban and Rural Construction and Environmental Protection and published by the People’s Daily on April 15, 1984.
Zurück zum Zitat Department of Housing and Real Estate, MOC. (2005). Research report on improving the economical and suitable housing program. Internal Publications. Department of Housing and Real Estate, MOC. (2005). Research report on improving the economical and suitable housing program. Internal Publications.
Zurück zum Zitat Eckstein, H. 1975. Case study and theory in political science. In Greenstein, F. I. & Polsby, N. W. (Eds.), Handbook of political science, Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co. Eckstein, H. 1975. Case study and theory in political science. In Greenstein, F. I. & Polsby, N. W. (Eds.), Handbook of political science, Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.
Zurück zum Zitat Gong, Y., & Zong, W. (Eds.). (1988). Housing reform in Yantai City. Beijing: Economic Daily Press. Gong, Y., & Zong, W. (Eds.). (1988). Housing reform in Yantai City. Beijing: Economic Daily Press.
Zurück zum Zitat Greif, A., & Laitin, D. D. (2004). A theory of endogenous institutional change. American Political Science Review, 98(4), 633–652.CrossRef Greif, A., & Laitin, D. D. (2004). A theory of endogenous institutional change. American Political Science Review, 98(4), 633–652.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Hacker, J. S. (2004). Privatizing risk without privatizing the welfare state: The hidden politics of social policy retrenchment in the United States. American Political Science Review, 98(2), 243–260.CrossRef Hacker, J. S. (2004). Privatizing risk without privatizing the welfare state: The hidden politics of social policy retrenchment in the United States. American Political Science Review, 98(2), 243–260.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Heilmann, S. (2008a). Policy experimentation in China’s economic rise. Studies in Comparative International Development, 43(1), 1–26.CrossRef Heilmann, S. (2008a). Policy experimentation in China’s economic rise. Studies in Comparative International Development, 43(1), 1–26.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Heilmann, S. (2008b). From local experiments to national policy: The origins of China’s distinctive policy process. China Journal, 59, 1–30. Heilmann, S. (2008b). From local experiments to national policy: The origins of China’s distinctive policy process. China Journal, 59, 1–30.
Zurück zum Zitat Howlett, M. (2011). Designing public policies: Principles and instruments. London, New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. Howlett, M. (2011). Designing public policies: Principles and instruments. London, New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
Zurück zum Zitat Knight, J. (1992). Institutions and social conflict. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRef Knight, J. (1992). Institutions and social conflict. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Krasner, S. D. (1984). Approaches to the state: Alternative conceptions and historical dynamics. Comparative Politics, 16(2), 223–246.CrossRef Krasner, S. D. (1984). Approaches to the state: Alternative conceptions and historical dynamics. Comparative Politics, 16(2), 223–246.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Kwong, T. M. (2001). The work units and housing reforms in China. Third World Planning Review, 23(1), 23–37. Kwong, T. M. (2001). The work units and housing reforms in China. Third World Planning Review, 23(1), 23–37.
Zurück zum Zitat Lai, O.-K. (1998). Governance and the housing question in a transitional economy—The political economy of housing policy in China reconsidered. Habitat International, 22(3), 231–243.CrossRef Lai, O.-K. (1998). Governance and the housing question in a transitional economy—The political economy of housing policy in China reconsidered. Habitat International, 22(3), 231–243.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Lee, J. (2000). From welfare housing to home ownership: The dilemma of China’s housing reform. Housing Studies, 15(1), 61–76.CrossRef Lee, J. (2000). From welfare housing to home ownership: The dilemma of China’s housing reform. Housing Studies, 15(1), 61–76.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Lin, J. Y., Cai, F., & Li, Z. (2003). The China miracle: Development strategy and economic reform. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press. Lin, J. Y., Cai, F., & Li, Z. (2003). The China miracle: Development strategy and economic reform. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press.
Zurück zum Zitat Mahoney, J. (2000). Path dependence in historical sociology. Theory and Society, 29(4), 507–548.CrossRef Mahoney, J. (2000). Path dependence in historical sociology. Theory and Society, 29(4), 507–548.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Mahoney, J., & Thelen, K. A. (2010) A theory of gradual institutional change. In Mahoney, J. & Thelen, K. A. (Eds.), Explaining institutional change: Ambiguity, agency, and power (pp. 1–37). New York: Cambridge University Press. Mahoney, J., & Thelen, K. A. (2010) A theory of gradual institutional change. In Mahoney, J. & Thelen, K. A. (Eds.), Explaining institutional change: Ambiguity, agency, and power (pp. 1–37). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Zurück zum Zitat Markevich, A., & Zhuravskaya, E. (2011). M-form hierarchy with poorly-diversified divisions: A case of Khrushchev’s reform in Soviet Russia. Journal of Public Economics, 95, 1550–1560.CrossRef Markevich, A., & Zhuravskaya, E. (2011). M-form hierarchy with poorly-diversified divisions: A case of Khrushchev’s reform in Soviet Russia. Journal of Public Economics, 95, 1550–1560.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Moe, T. M. (2005). Power and political institutions. Perspectives on, Politics, 3(02), 215–233.CrossRef Moe, T. M. (2005). Power and political institutions. Perspectives on, Politics, 3(02), 215–233.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Naughton, B. (1995). Growing out of the plan: Chinese economic reform, 1978–1993. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.CrossRef Naughton, B. (1995). Growing out of the plan: Chinese economic reform, 1978–1993. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Pierson, P. (2000a). Increasing returns, path dependence, and the study of politics. American Political Science Review, 94(2), 251–267.CrossRef Pierson, P. (2000a). Increasing returns, path dependence, and the study of politics. American Political Science Review, 94(2), 251–267.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Pierson, P. (2000b). Not just what, but when: Timing and sequence in political processes. Studies in American Political Development, 14(1), 72–92.CrossRef Pierson, P. (2000b). Not just what, but when: Timing and sequence in political processes. Studies in American Political Development, 14(1), 72–92.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Ramo, J. C. (2004). The Beijing consensus. London: Foreign Policy Centre. Ramo, J. C. (2004). The Beijing consensus. London: Foreign Policy Centre.
Zurück zum Zitat Rawski, T. (1999). Reforming China’s economy: What have we learned? China Journal, 41, 139–156.CrossRef Rawski, T. (1999). Reforming China’s economy: What have we learned? China Journal, 41, 139–156.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Roland, G. (2000). Transition and economics: Politics, markets, and firms. Cambridge: MIT Press. Roland, G. (2000). Transition and economics: Politics, markets, and firms. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Zurück zum Zitat Rose, R. (1991). What is lesson-drawing. Journal of Public Policy, 11(1), 1–22.CrossRef Rose, R. (1991). What is lesson-drawing. Journal of Public Policy, 11(1), 1–22.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Sabatier, P. A. (1988). An advocacy coalition framework of policy change and the role of policy-oriented learning therein. Policy Sciences, 21(2–3), 129–168.CrossRef Sabatier, P. A. (1988). An advocacy coalition framework of policy change and the role of policy-oriented learning therein. Policy Sciences, 21(2–3), 129–168.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Sabatier, P. A., & Jenkins-Smith, H. (1993). Policy change and learning: An advocacy coalition framework. Boulder: Westview. Sabatier, P. A., & Jenkins-Smith, H. (1993). Policy change and learning: An advocacy coalition framework. Boulder: Westview.
Zurück zum Zitat Sabel, C. F., & Simon, W. (2011). Minimalism and experimentalism in the administrative state. Columbia Public Law Research Paper (10–238). Sabel, C. F., & Simon, W. (2011). Minimalism and experimentalism in the administrative state. Columbia Public Law Research Paper (10–238).
Zurück zum Zitat State Council Population Census Office, Department of Population and Employment of National Bureau of Statistics of China (Eds.). (2012). Tabulation on the 2010 population census of the People’s Republic of China. Beijing: China Statistical Press. State Council Population Census Office, Department of Population and Employment of National Bureau of Statistics of China (Eds.). (2012). Tabulation on the 2010 population census of the People’s Republic of China. Beijing: China Statistical Press.
Zurück zum Zitat State Council. (1988). Implementation plan for a gradual housing system reform in cities and towns (Document No. 11, February, 1988). State Council. (1988). Implementation plan for a gradual housing system reform in cities and towns (Document No. 11, February, 1988).
Zurück zum Zitat State Council. (1991a). Circular on promoting the housing reform in cities and towns (Document No. 30, June 07, 1991). State Council. (1991a). Circular on promoting the housing reform in cities and towns (Document No. 30, June 07, 1991).
Zurück zum Zitat State Council. (1991b). Circular on promoting the nationwide reform of the urban housing system (Document No. 73, November 17, 1991). State Council. (1991b). Circular on promoting the nationwide reform of the urban housing system (Document No. 73, November 17, 1991).
Zurück zum Zitat State Council. (1994). Decision on deepening housing reform in cities and towns.(Document No. 43, July 18). State Council. (1994). Decision on deepening housing reform in cities and towns.(Document No. 43, July 18).
Zurück zum Zitat State Council. (1998). Circular on further reform of urban housing system and speeding up housing development (Document No. 23, July 07, 1998). State Council. (1998). Circular on further reform of urban housing system and speeding up housing development (Document No. 23, July 07, 1998).
Zurück zum Zitat State Council. (2003). Circular on promoting steady and healthy development of the real estate market (Document No. 18, August 12, 2003). State Council. (2003). Circular on promoting steady and healthy development of the real estate market (Document No. 18, August 12, 2003).
Zurück zum Zitat State Council. (2007). Directives on resolving housing difficulties of urban low-income households (Document No. 24, August 07, 2007). State Council. (2007). Directives on resolving housing difficulties of urban low-income households (Document No. 24, August 07, 2007).
Zurück zum Zitat Thelen, K. A. (2004). How institutions evolve. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRef Thelen, K. A. (2004). How institutions evolve. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Tsai, K. S. (2006). Adaptive informal institutions and endogenous institutional change in China. World Politics, 59(1), 116–141.CrossRef Tsai, K. S. (2006). Adaptive informal institutions and endogenous institutional change in China. World Politics, 59(1), 116–141.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Van der Heijden, J. (2011). Institutional layering: A review of the use of the concept. Politics, 31(1), 9–18.CrossRef Van der Heijden, J. (2011). Institutional layering: A review of the use of the concept. Politics, 31(1), 9–18.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Van der Heijden, J. (2013). Experimental layering: Paving the way for or raising barriers to optimal policy mixes. Paper presented at Policy Design Workshop, February 28–March 1, 2013. National University of Singapore. Van der Heijden, J. (2013). Experimental layering: Paving the way for or raising barriers to optimal policy mixes. Paper presented at Policy Design Workshop, February 28–March 1, 2013. National University of Singapore.
Zurück zum Zitat Walder, A. G. (1986). Communist neo-traditionalism: Work and authority in Chinese industry. Berkeley: University of California Press. Walder, A. G. (1986). Communist neo-traditionalism: Work and authority in Chinese industry. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Zurück zum Zitat Wang, Y., & Murie, A. (1996). The process of commercialisation of urban housing in China. Urban Studies, 33(6), 971–989.CrossRef Wang, Y., & Murie, A. (1996). The process of commercialisation of urban housing in China. Urban Studies, 33(6), 971–989.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Wang, Y., & Murie, A. (1999). Housing policy and practice in China. Basingstoke: Macmillan. Wang, Y., & Murie, A. (1999). Housing policy and practice in China. Basingstoke: Macmillan.
Zurück zum Zitat Xie, W. (1993). The semihierarchical totalitarian nature of Chinese politics. Comparative Politics, 25(3), 313–330.CrossRef Xie, W. (1993). The semihierarchical totalitarian nature of Chinese politics. Comparative Politics, 25(3), 313–330.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Xu, C. (2011). The fundamental institutions of China’s reforms and development. Journal of Economic Literature, 49(4), 1076–1151.CrossRef Xu, C. (2011). The fundamental institutions of China’s reforms and development. Journal of Economic Literature, 49(4), 1076–1151.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Zhang, X. Q. (1998). Privatisation: a study of housing policy in urban China. New York: Nova Science Publishers. Zhang, X. Q. (1998). Privatisation: a study of housing policy in urban China. New York: Nova Science Publishers.
Zurück zum Zitat Zhou, S., & Lin, S. (1980). On the housing problem [tantan zhuzhai wenti]. People’s Daily [Renmin ribao], 5 August, 1980. Zhou, S., & Lin, S. (1980). On the housing problem [tantan zhuzhai wenti]. People’s Daily [Renmin ribao], 5 August, 1980.
Zurück zum Zitat Zhu, X. (2013). Mandate versus championship: Vertical government intervention and diffusion of innovation in public services in authoritarian China. Public Management Review, 10(1080/14719037), 798028. Zhu, X. (2013). Mandate versus championship: Vertical government intervention and diffusion of innovation in public services in authoritarian China. Public Management Review, 10(1080/14719037), 798028.
Metadaten
Titel
Experiment-based policy making or conscious policy design? The case of urban housing reform in China
verfasst von
Ciqi Mei
Zhilin Liu
Publikationsdatum
01.09.2014
Verlag
Springer US
Erschienen in
Policy Sciences / Ausgabe 3/2014
Print ISSN: 0032-2687
Elektronische ISSN: 1573-0891
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11077-013-9185-y

Weitere Artikel der Ausgabe 3/2014

Policy Sciences 3/2014 Zur Ausgabe

Premium Partner