Conserving Biodiversity in Arid Regions

The book is a compilation of case studies focusing on the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity of global significance in arid and semiarid regions of Southern nations. The case studies were developed as part of the GEF/UNEP funded project “Promoting Best Practices for Conservation and Sustainable Use of Biodiversity of Global Significance in Arid and Semiarid Zones” (project number GF/1300-99-03) implemented by the Third World Network of Scientific Organizations (TWNSO) in Trieste, Italy.

The need for sustainable land use, especially on agricultural land in the tropics, has been recognized for a long time and was highlighted by the Earth Summit in 1992. The problem of land degradation from agricultural and livestock pressures received particular prominence for dryland Africa in the UN Convention to Combat Desertification. The means to a practical solution to the problem of unsustainable farming practices has, however, been very elusive.

Much of the worlds biological diversity exists outside of a formal protected reserve network, often on land that is managed for some form of agricultural production and the maintenance of rural livelihoods. Effective biodiversity conservation will therefore require innovative ways to merge the needs of farmers and rural communities with the need to conserve globally significant biodiversity. One of the key questions in this process is who actually benefits from biodiversity conservation. If farmers and rural communities do not benefit from biodiversity conservation, then society needs to provide incentives to achieve conservation objectives on agricultural lands. However, farmers and rural communities rely on healthy ecosystems to provide goods and services to sustain agricultural production (Pagiola et al. 1997) and to improve their quality of life, and the maintenance of healthy ecosystems may also provide benefits for biodiversity conservation. An important first step is to identify and promote conservation farming practices that can meet both these needs.

Many millions of farmers continue to depend on their traditional cultivars for food, fodder, and other economic, cultural and ecological activities (Brush 1991, Zimmerer and Douches 1991, Bellon 1996). In many developing countries, farmers also rely largely on local seed sources for their staple crops. Over 95 percent of rice cultivated in Nepal, 85 percent of durum wheat and 98 percent of barley in Morocco, and 50 percent of maize seeds in Mexico still come from local farmer sources (Mellas 2000, Upadhyay et al. 2001).

In Burkina Faso as well as in the other sahelian countries people rely on trees and shrubs for their daily life (Guinko 1984, 1985; Bognounou 1987, 1988; FAO 1987; Kessler and Boni 1990). Trees are used for human and animal food, for medicinal purposes, for energy (firewood and charcoal), for construction, for raw material, for soil fertilization, etc. Despite the importance of the forest resources to the livelihood of rural people, Burkina Faso loses 32,000 ha of forest each year (FAO 1995).

It is increasingly becoming apparent that strategies are needed to help policy makers in Africa reconcile the task of conserving biodiversity while at the same time increasing agricultural productivity. In this paper, I explore some of the complementary activities between agriculture and biodiversity. I also discuss some of the characteristics and advantages of indigenous management systems in the management of agriculture and biodiversity. In the past, indigenous knowledge or local farmer knowledge about production systems has been largely overlooked, though, farmers are seen as partners to conserve and manage biodiversity whether for nature reserves, or to improve crops and livestock yields. I maintain that local knowledge systems, traditions, institutions and environmental conditions are fundamental to biodiversity conservation and management. As a matter of policy, I advocate the promotion of agricultural programs and biodiversity conservation projects that incorporate indigenous knowledge in their design and implementation. A blend of modern science and indigenous knowledge will be required to face the challenges of increasing agricultural production and managing the environment on a sustainable basis in the decades ahead in Africa.

Wetlands are lands that are transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water is usually at or near the surface of the land or land that is covered with shallow water (Cowardin et al. 1979, Roggeri 1995). In the context of dry lands, wetlands are areas that are permanently, seasonally or occasionally water logged with fresh or saline water that supports characteristic animals and plants. In the dry lands of eastern Africa, wetlands cover about 3 percent of the total land area and include shallow lakes and margin s of deep lakes, swamps and marshes found on upper flood plains of major rivers, coastal river flood plains and high mountain peat bogs and tarns (Omoding 1995). These ecosystems support valuable biodiversity, including large numbers of mammals, reptiles, fishes and birds as well as diverse plant communities (Denny 1993). They also provide valuable resources and environmental benefits, such as biomass cropping for livestock pasture, water supply, agriculture, fisheries and subsistence hunting of wildlife that sustain local economies and communities (Shumway 1999).

Human and natural interactions in the earth’ s vast drylands have global-scale influences. Dryland ecosystems play a major role in global biophysical processes by reflecting and absorbing solar radiation, maintaining a balance of atmospheric constituents, and sustaining biomass and biodiversity. A continuously increasing human population and demands for food and water, has lead to increasing pressures on the functioning of natural ecosystems and subsequently the maintenance of genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. The development of technologies and practices for the conservation and promotion of sustainable systems to enhance biodiversity requires full consideration of the social, cultural, ecological, political and economic values which different communities place on species and ecosystems (WOCAT 2000). These call for better communication, linkages and coordination between stakeholders at all levels of decision making. However, effective decision making relies on better informed individuals and organizations, which makes the availability of knowledge to achieve different goals, a prerequisite for sustainable management of any system.

Promoting best practices for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity of global significance in the semiarid areas of Namibia is being undertaken by a loose public, private, nongovernmental (NGO) partnership. This is being led by the public sector that manages a number of established national parks and more recently, in partnership with the NGO community, is promoting community based natural resource management through conservancies on commercial and communal farming lands. The private sector is primarily involved in tourism that provides the foreign exchange income motivating the public sector, with its many alternative social responsibilities, to retain their interest in biodiversity. In the arid areas of Namibia, a similar situation prevails with differences of emphasis but not overall pattern.

Biodiversity in arid and semi-arid zones is the total variability of living organisms and the genes they contain from all ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species, and ecosystems. Untold numbers of arid and semi-arid zone species have become extinct in the past 100 years, and every arid zone on the earth can be cited in the list of habitats containing rare and endangered species.

From ancient times Mongolians have had a custom to “worship” nature. The first law on the protection of environment was issued in the 12th century when Khaan Tooril of the Khereid aimag took over the protection of the Bogdkhan Mountain, which surrounds Ulaanbaatar, the present capital of Mongolia in the south. At present, there are 48 protected areas in Mongolia, covering 20.5 million hectares, 13.1 percent of the country’s territory. Among others they include twelve Strictly Protected Areas (SPA) (Oyungerel 2001). Two of these 12 SPAs are situated in the arid zone of Mongolia. Of these two, the Great Gobi SPA established in 1975 and announced in 1991 by UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Program as a Biosphere Reserve is of special interest. It is the largest protected area in Asia and the fifth largest one in the world. There are 410 species of plants and 170 species of animals and birds in the area (Gunin et al. 1998). Included in the SPA is the unique Trans-Altai Gobi desert.

Despite the declaration of Lake Baikal as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996, the environmental quality of the lake and its surrounding ecosyst ems continues to decline. The southern boundary of the Baikal territory is the state border between Russia and Mongolia. However, this is a political boundary between the two nations and environmental quality of the Lake Baikal area can only be achieved under international cooperation (RFL 2002).

Nearly 400 million of people in arid and semiarid regions in China are affected by desertification. Desertification is not only a major obstacle to the country’s regional economic development but also poses a serious threat to the biodiversity, which constitutes a material basis for long—term human well—being. Consequently, mitigation of desertification is important to promoting sustainable development. This study describes the establishment and development of restorative sand—fixing vegetation in China’s Shapotou region where railways have been affected by increasing problems of desertification, and further provides a theoretical basis for greater understanding of the ecological mechanisms of restoring biodiversity decertified regions.

The selection of biodiversity indices has importance implications on the conclusions drawn from such studies (Cousins 1991). As simple and useful indices, species richness and the Shannon—Wiener (SW) indices have been widely used relative other indices for studying species diversity (Gough et al. 1994, Guo 1995). These two indices are used by many ecologists to describe species composition and function attributes of plant communities and to identify relationships between productivity and diversity (Hooper et al. 1997, Tilman et al. 1997). Due to the complexity, variation, and scale dependence of the traits of vegetation, there are many inherent uncertainties in the measurements and ultimate calculations of species richness and SW indices (Palmer 1988, Hegazy et al. 1998).

Contrary to the general impression, and paradoxical as it may appear, arid and semiarid regions are often quite rich in water resources and have many aquatic habitats. Some of the world’s large rivers such as Nile, Indus and Murray—Darling, pass through the arid regions though their source of water lies far outside the arid zone (Williams 2000). Many large and deep lakes, mostly brackish or saline, also occur within the arid regions; for example Caspian Sea, Aral Sea, Dead Sea, Lake Chad, and the Great Salt Lake. There are hundreds of seasonal and ephemeral streams and thousands of shallow, freshwater and saline lakes (now better known as wetlands) of varying size and depth, many of which are permanent.

India’s arid region can be divided into a hot arid zone in the west, inhabited by the Aryans, and a cold arid region in the north India, inhabited by indigenous tribal communities. This article deals with biodiversity issues in India’s cold desert region.

In the Indian subcontinent, natural ecosystems have become islands, rich in biological diversity and natural resources in a landscape poor in biomass and species. With India’s population over one billion, and still growing, the protection of these areas increasingl y becomes more difficult.

The Tibetan Plateau is an uplifted geographical region that is encircled by the western Karakorum massif, the northern Kunlun mountains, the southern Himalayas, and a multitude of deeply incised mountain ranges that drain the Plateau to the east (Gurung 1999). The plateau is primarily located in western China (Tibetan Autonomous Region, Qinghai, Gansu, Sichuan and Yunnan Provinces), but also extends into parts of northern Pakistan, northwest and northeast India, northern Nepal and northern Bhutan. Encompassing about 1.65 million sq. km. and with an average elevation exceeding 4000m, it is the world ’s highest, and certainly one of the most important rangeland landscapes, possessing distinct cultural and biological resources (Miller in press). Vegetation types range from cold deserts to semiarid steppe and shrub lands to alpine steppe and moist alpine meadows and forests, which support a rich array of unique floral and faunal assemblages. Given its conservation significance as one of the most outstanding and diverse alpine ecosystems, WWF has identified the Tibetan Plateau as a site of “global significance” and nominated it to be one of its Global 200 Ecoregions (Olson and Dinerstein 1998, Sherpa 2000).

Mediterranean-type ecosystems, such as Central Chile, the Mediterranean Basin, California, South Africa and Southwestern Australia are some of the 25 biodiversity hotspots on earth, selected because of their high plant diversity and endemism. These ecosystems represent 20 percent of the world ’s flora in only 5 percent of the earth’s surface (Cowling et al. 1996). The risk to their flora from an increase in population density is another reason for their selection as hotspots (Cincotta et al. 2000).

The northeast of Brazil is a typical semiarid region with chronic social and environmental problems resulting from decades of overexploitation, inappropriate land use and extended periods of drought. This area, two-thirds the size of western Europe is home to 30 percent of the Brazilian population. Millions of people have migrated from the region to the large cities of southern Brazil or the Amazon region.

Human activities are one of the main causes of ecological changes and plant species disappearance in Brazil’s semiarid (“caatinga”) zone. The primary activities are: the formation of pastures, implementing irrigation projects, the production of energy, overgrazing by livestock, and burning (Queiroz et al. 1992). According to Sá et al. (1994), about two-thirds of the driest area of the semiarid zone of Northeast Brazil has experienced significant degradation and loss of biodiversity.

The Atacama Desert located between latitude 8° and 29° S and longitude 68° and 72° W is one of the most arid regions of the world. This northern and arid region of Chile runs 1600 km from north to south, with a width varying from 160 km to 350 km from east to west. The transverse topography from east to west, from the Pacific Ocean to the Andes Cordillera, shows marked altitude differences varying in a narrow strip of 250 km from sea level to 5000 m, with some Andean mountain peaks of almost 6000 m.

The scientific aims of this Darwin Initiative-funded project were to use molecular genetic markers (specifically microsatellites) to: (1)elucidate the recent evolutionary history of Peruvian vicuña populations; (2)evaluate the genetic diversity and its partitioning in those populations; (3)identify demographically independent management units within these populations for future management; and (4)assess the likely genetic effects of past and future management strategies, including the likely consequences of sustainable utilisation practices. It is important to emphasise that this is the first such study carried out on a wild South American camelid.

The vicuña is a South American Camelid belonging to the infra-order Tylopoda, and family Camelidae (Osgood 1943, Wheeler 1995). Other species of South American Camelid are the guanaco (Lama guanicoe), which is also a wild species, the llama (Lama glama) and the alpaca (Lama pacos), both domesticated species (Bonacic 1991, Franklin and Fritz 1991, Torres, 1992, Bonacic et al. 1995). The vicuña inhabits high regions of the Andes at altitudes between 3,000 and 4,600 meters. Its range covers 9° 30′ to 29° 00′ latitude South (Koford 1957).

Due to its relatively sparse population, lack of development and diverse geography, Bolivia is one of the best places in South America for conserving wildlife. However, the use and commercialization of various native wildlife species without proper management results in diminishing the prospects of conserving those species.

The following article, which is based on the Sustainable Development Plan of Seridó (SSDP), analyzes parts of the environmental and economic aspects of the plan. The SSDP was a pioneering and innovative experience of strategic participative planning in the State of Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil. The SSDP, which began in September 1999 and concluded in September 2000, involved various state agencies, organizations and representatives from civil society during its preparation. The SSDP was prepared by the Inter-American Institute of Agricultural Cooperation and the Rio Grande do Norte State Government. The initial impetus for the SSDP came from the requests of the regional political, entrepreneurial, unionist and religious leaderships made to representatives from the federal and state. governments for decision making on the economic crisis which had been going on in the region since the 1980s. This crisis entailed severe environmental effects apart from the economic and social consequences, and these effects were intensified by the prolonged dry seasons which occur cyclically in the northeastern semi-arid region, including the Seridó region.

Several factors contribute to biodiversity loss: poverty, economic marginalization, undervaluing of natural resources, poor social participation in decisions concerning development and resource utilization, scientific and other ignorance about resources, and where resources are present in each country, etc. Many of the factors stem, in part, from constraints and unequal access by different groups of people to educational opportunities. Although the majority of the world’s human population and terrestrial biological diversity is located in developing countries, the countries have only six percent of the world’s scientists. Within large geographical regions there are uneven distributions of scientific expertise and capacity. For example, an analysis of the number of papers presented by plant scientists during the last four Latin American Botanical Congresses (1986, 1990, 1994, 1998) shows that an overwhelming majority of the papers presented at those meetings come from only five countries: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico and Venezuela despite participation of between 12–19 countries in each meeting (Maldonado, unpublished). Several countries of the region have not contributed a single paper in those meetings in a time period spanning almost 20 years, while others have increased their presence during this period.

São Paulo state, located in the Southeastern region of Brazil, is the most industrialized state of the country, and has a population of over 35 million people. The two major biomes of the state, Atlantic Forest and Cerrado (Savannah), have been reduced to 12 percent and 2 percent of their pre—Columbian land area, respectively. With the exception of the coastal mountains (Serra do Mar), which are still covered with large extensions of remnants of native Tropical Rain Forest, inland forest and cerrado remnants are highly fragmented. Although forest clearing started in early 1800’s, it grew rapidly in the last half century. From 1962 to 1992 the state lost more than 50 percent of its native cerrado cover (Governo do Estado de Sao Paulo 1993; http 1).

Latin America and the Caribbean are well known as the site of great biodiversity, but the focus of attention is most of ten on the admittedly important world heritage of the tropical and mountain rainforests and wetlands of the region. This paper directs attention to the globally significant biodiversity of the arid and semiarid parts of the region. The area includes some of the driest deserts in the world in Chile and large areas of semiarid subtropical conditions, some of which are influenced by the proximity to, and the influence of, the Andean mountain chain. The paper reviews the current funding priorities in the region, attempts in a general way to identify biodiversity conservation needs in terms of networks and institutions and addresses the most effective processes to build on and expand the already sound capacity in the region.

The value of science is greatly increased when it is used to benefit society. Too frequently those who do and understand basic science are not involved in its applications, and those charged with resolving societal concerns, such as the management and sustainability of natural resources, are not aware of research that can assist them in making decisions. The objective of this paper is to provide professionals, who are not ecologists but who are involved in conservation and management of natural resources, a summary of ecological research that indicates desert trees are an important resource. I have chosen trees as the focus of this paper because I believe that they alone harbor a large proportion of the biodiversity in dryland ecosystems, and the sustainability and function of these ecosystems depends on their welfare. This view is not to discredit other types of vegetation, for they are important and share several biological processes and some of the biodiversity associated with trees. However, generally less is known of their ecological and functional properties. When possible I have incorporated ecological information on Acacia tortilis (samr in Arabic) from various regions of its range, including recent studies from northern Oman. Samr is a ubiquitous tree throughout the arid and semiarid regions of North Africa and the Middle East. Its dominance in many of the varied ecosystems in the region suggests it is a keystone species, one that is vital for maintaining productive ecosystems.

The ability of Avicennia marina, the only indigenous mangrove species in Oman, to tolerate both an arid climate and high salinity allows this tree to form an integral part of the coastal habitat. Fouda and Al—Muharrami (1996) estimated the area of mangroves to be 1003 ha, scattered around the coast in no less than 30 sites. The factors that allow mangroves to flourish in some sites and not others are not fully understood. It has been speculated that over grazing in isolated areas eradicated trees and dispersal from distant forests has not occurred. Other possible causes for the decline in mangrove forests are the climate shift to more arid conditions some 6000 years ago, excessive exposure to wind and tide action, and unsuitable soil properties at many locations for germination and seedling development. In an attempt to arrest the decline in mangrove areas, a comprehensive afforestation program has been initiated.

The Corncrake Crex crex is a globally threatened and vulnerable species due to a long—term and steep decline of its breeding numbers and range (BirdLife International 2000). It is listed in Appendix II of the Bonn Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, to which many countries are signatories including Egypt. The Corncrake’s breeding range extends over much of northern and central Europe and east to Russia and central Siberia. It migrates south in autumn, especially through Egypt and Arabia, to winter in sub-Saharan Africa (Cramp and Simmons 1980). The recent estimate of the total world population is between 1.6 and 3 million singing males (BirdLife International 2001). Corncrakes have been declining in Europe since the last century, with declines of 20–50 percent in many countries in the last 10 years (BirdLife International 2001).

Arid lands cover about two thirds of Tunisia and are subjected to severe climatic conditions. The arid parts of the country are characterized by a large diversity of phytogenetic resources. The Matmata mountain chain is considered as a transition zone with high genetic potential. Many spontaneous and cultivated plants of this area can be well adapted to both saharan and humid regions. In this area, fruit trees, cereals and legumes are the main cultivated plants under rain-fed conditions. Farming practices are mainl y based on Tabias/lessours system giving a landscape specific to the region. Olive and fig are by far the most important fruit crops followed by almond and grape (Zammouri 1999).

This case study presents the sociological work of the Moroccan component of a global project on “strengthening the scientific basis of in situ conservation of agricultural biodiversity” coordinated by the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (lPGRI) and implemented in nine countries. The main objectives of the global project are: (1)to support the development of a framework of knowledge on farmer decision making processes that influence in situ conservation of agricultural biodiversity; (2)to strengthen national institutions for the planning and implementation of conservation programmes for agricultural biodiversity; and (3)to broaden the use of agricultural biodiversity and the participation in its conservation by farming communities and other groups.

Biodiversity and sustainable development are terms that have been used in the arena of environmentalism with sheer abandon in the past decade. As a consequence the definitions of these terms have been overextended to cover matters far beyond their intended scope. One of the major difficulties causing this confusion is the inability to explain the link between biodiversity and sustainable development in unambiguous terms. Good examples are the National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans produced by the nations signatory to the Convention on Biodiversity (CBD). The worst-case scenarios in some of these strategies and action plans indicate very remote, if at all any links between biodiversity and sustainable development.

Thick sustainable development plans and strategies are gathering dust around the world, soon to be forgotten, and likely to be thrown away with the next serious housecleaning. Th is is so lamentably because many sustainable development plans and strategies frequently fail to be implemented, become quickly outdated, and are reinvented by the next group with responsibility to develop a plan or strategy. This next group is often unfamiliar with previous plans and strategies and sometimes spends enormous amounts of energy fighting the same fights and drawing similar conclusions about what needs to be done to move a place to a sustainable future only to have the new plan become another in a series of documents created by wishful thinking. For instance, since the Earth Summit in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro alone there are hundreds of decisions that have been made by the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (UNCSD) and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) in their yearly meetings that have failed to be taken seriously by the parties that participated in negotiating these decisions (Brown 1998). As these issues are reconsidered in future negotiations, negotiators often fight the same fights and reach similar compromises only to have the new decision become the next in a series of decisions to be ignored. As another example, in the United States there are innumerable land use plans that have never been implemented.