Fluid and Thermal Sciences

This chapter is a detailed coverage of various fluid properties and their corresponding units. Section 1.1 describes the importance of units in engineering calculations. The two commonly used systems of units, USCS and SI, and the units of fundamental physical quantities are presented in Sect. 1.2. The important fluid properties including density, specific weight, specific gravity, and viscosity and their units are explained in Sect. 1.4. The use and conversion of units are illustrated using several example problems.

The topic of fluid statics examines the theory and applications of fluids at rest. Since most of the applications, if not all, involve water, this topic is also called “hydrostatics.” The concept of static pressure is of fundamental importance, and it is explained in Sect. 2.1. The next section (Sect. 2.2) looks at differential manometers, which are extensively used in pressure measurement. The static pressure on submerged surfaces results in a hydrostatic force. This has applications in the design of dams and water barriers such as sluice gates. The theory and calculations related to hydrostatic force are explained in Sect. 2.3. Solution approaches to problems in fluid statics are illustrated via many example problems.

This chapter covers the theory and applications of principles related to the study of fluids in motion. The “continuity equation” (Sect. 3.2) based on the principle of conservation of mass is of fundamental importance. Section 3.3 presents an overview of standard pipe sizes and the nomenclature associated with it. Laminar and turbulent flows in pipes are discussed in Sect. 3.4, including the criteria for laminar flow. Calculating friction head loss and pressure drop in flow through pipes is of great practical importance, and this topic is comprehensively covered in Sect. 3.5. The Darcy Equation for calculating friction head loss and the Moody diagram are particularly significant in this section. The concept of hydraulic diameter used in calculations related to flow in noncircular sections is presented in Sect. 3.6. Calculation of “minor losses” due to valves and pipe fittings is explained in Sect. 3.7. This section covers the velocity head method and the equivalent pipe length method used in calculating minor losses. Sections 3.8 and 3.9 analyze flow through pipes in series and flow through parallel pipe networks, respectively. The “boundary layer theory” and flow past solid objects are discussed in Sect. 3.10. The concepts of drag and lift are of particular importance in this section. Section 3.11 looks at the “impulse-momentum principle,” which has practical importance in the study of forces generated in piping system due to change in flow direction. The impulse-momentum principle is also used in calculating the power generated by hydraulic turbines.

Section 4.1 introduces the energy equation, which is of prime importance in fluid mechanics. This section includes discussion of different forms of energy and their units in USCS as well as SI systems. The mechanical energy equation and its different forms (energy per unit weight and energy per unit mass) commonly used in fluid mechanics are explained in Sect. 4.2. Section 4.3 covers the pump power equation and the formulas for obtaining pump power required in horsepower and kilowatts with various forms of inputs such as gallons per minute cubic feet per second (cfs). The practical applications of the pump power equation are clearly illustrated through several example problems with detailed solutions. The famous Bernoulli’s equation is considered in Sect. 4.4. The pump performance parameters and the performance curves are described in Sect. 4.5, which also illustrates the determination of the pump operating point. In addition, Sect. 4.5 also examines the details related to the operation of pumps including pumps operating in series and pumps operating in parallel. Section 4.6 takes a look at the “affinity laws.” Pump cavitation is examined in Sect. 4.7. The topic of net positive suction head, with applications in the configuration and layout of pumping systems, is examined in Sect. 4.8.

This chapter covers the devices, formulas, and calculations related to measurements of fluid flow parameters. It starts with an introduction to the topic in Sect. 5.1. The most important fluid flow variable that needs to be measured and monitored is the volume flow rate of the fluid. Orifice meters and venturi meters, which are commonly used in flow measurement, are covered in Sects. 5.3 and 5.4. Section 5.2 takes a look at pitot tube, which is used in measuring fluid velocity. The pros cons of orifice meter and venturi meter are examined in Sect. 5.5, which also illustrates the calculation of permanent (non-recoverable) pressure drop in these devices.

This chapter covers the fundamental concepts of compressible flow and their applications. Section 6.1 provides a brief introduction to the field of compressible flow. The continuity equation for compressible flow, with varying density, is explained in Sect. 6.2 along with using the generalized compressibility chart for density calculations at high pressures. Section 6.3 introduces the Mach number and explains its significance. The topics of energy balance applied to isentropic gas flow, stagnation-static relationships, compressible isentropic flow through changing areas (nozzles), and sonic (choked) flow are covered in an expansive Sect. 6.4 along with illustrative examples. Section 6.5 covers adiabatic compressible flow with friction loss.

This chapter covers the fundamentals of dimensional analysis and similitude, which are commonly used in experimental fluid mechanics. Section 7.1 introduces dimensional analysis. The important dimensionless parameters used in fluid mechanics are described in Sect. 7.2, which also explains the benefits of using dimensional analysis. Section 7.2 also covers the Buckingham Pi theorem. Section 7.3 describes similitude, which is the process of simulation of an actual situation using a scaled lab model. This section also examines the significance of geometric, kinematic, and dynamic similarities.

This chapter covers the basic principles of heat transfer. Section 8.1 provides a brief introduction to the subject matter of heat transfer including the basic units for heat flow. The modeling of heat transfer equations based on the concept of thermal resistance is a powerful concept, and it is explained in Sect. 8.2. Section 8.3 introduces the three primary modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection (including free and forced convection), and radiation. Section 8.4 explains the analogy between thermal circuits and electrical circuits. The combination of conduction-convection systems and equivalent thermal circuits are described in Sect. 8.5.

This chapter covers the basic concepts and applications of conduction heat transfer. It starts with the introduction and definition of conduction heat transfer (Sect. 9.1). Fourier’s law of heat conduction and its application is explained in Sect. 9.2. Conduction through rectangular entities and R-values of insulating and building materials are described in Sect. 9.3. Sections 9.4 and 9.5 examine conduction through cylindrical and spherical walls, respectively.

This chapter covers the fundamental concepts of convection heat transfer. Section 10.1 explains Newton’s law of cooling, which is the basis of calculations for convection heat transfer. Section 10.2 details the basis of the resistance for convection heat transfer. The differences between free convection and forced convection are described in Sect. 10.3. Table 10.1 in Sect. 10.4 lists the dimensionless parameters used in heat transfer along with the formula and physical significance of each parameter. Table 10.2 in Sect. 10.5 lists the correlations used in convection heat transfer for different situations along with the applicable constraints for each correlation. Example and practice problems illustrating the application of the correlations are also included in this section. Section 10.6 provides the typical numerical ranges for convection heat transfer in different situations. The concept of overall heat transfer coefficient and its applications are explained in Sect. 10.7. Section 10.8 explains the Colburn analogy between fluid flow and heat transfer.

This chapter covers the fundamental concepts and applications of radiation heat transfer. Section 11.1 introduces the topic of radiation. Stefan-Boltzmann’s law, which is the basis of radiation calculations, is discussed in Sect. 11.2. This section also covers other fundamental aspects of radiation including ideal and nonideal radiators (black and gray bodies), emissivity, absorptivity, and reflectivity. Section 11.3 covers the topic of radiation shape factor or view factor. The calculation of net radiation heat transfer between two bodies is explained in Sect. 11.4. Section 11.5 takes a look at the equilibrium situations of radiation heat transfer with other modes of heat transfer (conduction and convection).

This chapter provides a comprehensive coverage on heat exchangers, especially on the aspect of sizing a heat exchanger. It starts with the fundamental principle of heat balance (Sect. 12.2). The formula and calculations related to the log mean temperature difference are illustrated in Sect. 12.3. The concepts of overall heat transfer coefficient and fouling factors are explained in Sect. 12.4. The applications of the heat exchanger design equation are illustrated in Sect. 12.5. Section 12.6 discusses heat exchanger effectiveness and the effectiveness-NTU method.

This chapter covers the fundamental concepts of thermodynamics, including thermodynamic properties and their units (Sect. 13.2), concept of mole, ideal gas law (Sect. 13.3), specific heats of gases (Sect. 13.4), and compressibility chart for nonideal behavior of gases (Sect. 13.5). Section 13.6 provides an extensive cover of different types of thermodynamic processes—isothermal, isentropic, constant volume, throttling, and constant pressure processes. The practical applications of thermodynamics fundamentals and thermodynamic processes are illustrated with a variety of example and practice problems involving calculations of work and changes in thermodynamic functions such as internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy (Sect. 13.7). Thermodynamic phase diagrams are discussed in Sect. 13.8, and a typical temperature vs. specific volume for water is also explained in this section. Section 13.9 illustrates the process of obtaining properties of steam from steam tables considering different states of steam. The use of Mollier diagram to obtain steam properties is explained in Sect. 13.10. Section 13.10 also introduces the pressure-enthalpy diagram (P – h diagram) for refrigerants.

This chapter covers the important topic of the first law of thermodynamics, which can also be represented in terms of conservation of energy and energy balance. Section 14.1.1 looks at the application of the first law for closed systems. The application of the first law for open systems is explained in detail in Sect. 14.1.2. Section 14.2 looks at the application of the first law for turbines and compressors including the use of isentropic efficiencies for turbines and compressors. This chapter also covers the application of the first law for heating/cooling of fluids (Sect. 14.3), for nozzles/diffusers (Sect. 14.4), and pumps (Sect. 14.5).

This chapter covers the fundamentals and applications of ideal gas mixtures with particular emphasis on air-water vapor mixtures. The basics, key definitions, and laws related to ideal gas mixtures are covered in Sect. 15.1. Section 15.2 focuses exclusively on air-water vapor mixtures, including properties, definitions, and the use of psychrometric charts. Air-conditioning processes, including dehumidification, heating, and cooling, are covered in Sect. 15.3. Section 15.4 addresses the use of mass and energy balances for cooling towers. Mixing of air streams is analyzed in Sect. 15.5. Section 15.6 illustrates the use and applications of psychrometric formulas.

This chapter provides a basic working knowledge about fuels and combustion. It starts with a brief introduction in Sect. 16.1. Key aspects of fuels such as heating values are covered in Sect. 16.2. Section 16.3 goes through the nuts and bolts of calculations related to combustion processes including the stoichiometry of combustion reactions. Other important aspects covered in Sect. 16.3 are derivation of theoretical and actual combustion equations, theoretical and excess air, air-fuel ratio, analysis of combustion products, and the use of Orsat analysis. Section 16.4 covers the use of gravimetric data of coal in combustion calculations. Calculation of dew point of combustion products is explained in Sect. 16.5.

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of thermodynamic cycles with an emphasis on the application of thermodynamic cycles in the real world. It starts with a brief introduction in Sect. 17.1. Section 17.2 explains Carnot cycle, reversed Carnot cycle, Carnot engine, and Carnot refrigerator. Comprehensive coverage of Rankine cycle including the use of regenerative feedwater heating and reheat cycle is provided in Sect. 17.3. Section 17.4 covers Brayton cycle along with the use of a regenerator. Section 17.5 illustrates the analysis and applications of combined gas and steam cycles. Cogeneration power plants are covered in Sect. 17.6 with numerous citations for further study. Otto Cycle, which is the basis of gasoline engines, is explained in Sect. 17.7. The use of vapor compression cycles in refrigeration, air-conditioning, and heating systems is explained in Sect. 17.8.