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2014 | Buch

Introduction: What Landmarks Are, and Why They Are Important Kapitel lesen Erstes Kapitel lesen

Landmarks

GIScience for Intelligent Services

verfasst von: Kai-Florian Richter, Stephan Winter

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

Enthalten in: Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" , Springer Professional "Technik" , Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

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Über dieses Buch

This book covers the latest research on landmarks in GIS, including practical applications. It addresses perceptual and cognitive aspects of natural and artificial cognitive systems, computational aspects with respect to identifying or selecting landmarks for various purposes, and communication aspects of human-computer interaction for spatial information provision. Concise and organized, the book equips readers to handle complex conceptual aspects of trying to define and formally model these situations. The book provides a thorough review of the cognitive, conceptual, computational and communication aspects of GIS landmarks. This review is unique for comparing concepts across a spectrum of sub-disciplines in the field. Portions of the ideas discussed led to the world’s first commercial navigation service using landmarks selected with cognitive principles. Landmarks: GI Science for Intelligent Services targets practitioners and researchers working in geographic information science, computer science, information science, cognitive science, geography and psychology. Advanced-level students in computer science, geography and psychology will also find this book valuable as a secondary textbook or reference.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Frontmatter
Chapter 1. Introduction: What Landmarks Are, and Why They Are Important
Abstract
Landmarks, by their pure existence, structure environments. They form cognitive anchors, markers, or reference points for orientation, wayfinding and communication. They appear in our sketches, in descriptions of meeting points or routes, and as the remarkable objects of an environment in tourist brochures. With all their significance for spatial cognition and communication, landmarks pose a major challenge for artificial intelligence and human-computer interaction. So far, research aiming for intelligent interaction design has suffered from a lack of understanding and formal modelling of landmarks. Here we will clarify our words’ meaning and draw some boundaries of our discussion, in preparation for integrating landmarks in artificial intelligence applications.
Kai-Florian Richter, Stephan Winter
Chapter 2. Landmarks: A Thought Experiment
Abstract
A thought experiment illustrates the fundamental role of landmarks for spatial abilities such as memory, orientation and wayfinding, and especially for human communication about space. We take a constructive approach, starting from a void environment and adding experiences supporting spatial abilities.
Kai-Florian Richter, Stephan Winter
Chapter 3. Cognitive Aspects: How People Perceive, Memorize, Think and Talk About Landmarks
Abstract
This chapter deals with the human mind and its representation of geographic space, particularly with the role of landmarks in these representations. The scientific disciplines that are called upon to illuminate this area are neuroscience, cognitive science, and linguistics. This broad range of disciplines is necessary, because the structure of spatial representations in the human brain and the behaviour of these representations in spatial tasks are not directly accessible, and thus, indirect approaches have to be pursued. Direct observations of brain cells are invasive, and thus applied typically on animals only. To what extent observations from animals can be transferred to explain human spatial cognition is a matter for investigation in its own right. However, indirect methods such as functional magnetic resonance imaging shed some light into brain activity. Cognitive scientists, being interested in intelligence and behaviour rather than actual cell structures, live with a similar challenge. They observe the human mind indirectly by devising experiments on human memory, reasoning, and behaviour. Linguists add studies of human spatial communication, which should also allow indirect conclusions about mental representations.
Kai-Florian Richter, Stephan Winter
Chapter 4. Conceptual Aspects: How Landmarks Can Be Described in Data Models
Abstract
Landmarks seem to be cross with current spatial data models. We have argued that landmarks are mental concepts having a fundamental role in forming the spatial reference frame for mental spatial representations. But landmarks are not a fundamental category in current geographic information modelling. For example, among Kuhn’s list of core concepts of spatial information [36] one finds location and objects as separate concepts, which appears to be incompatible with our cognitively motivated view of landmarks as concepts that are providing just that: the link between recognizable objects and location anchoring. This chapter sets out to fill this gap. In order to bridge between the cognitive concept and a formal, machine readable description of the semantics of landmarks we resort to ontologies. In this formal conceptualization landmarks will be specified intentionally, as a function, or role, of entities representing geographic objects, an approach fully aligned with our intentional definition in Sect. 1.1. The intentional specification will cater for a quantitative landmarkness, which is also compatible with the graded notion of categories. Finally, landmarkness will be modelled with dynamic variability to cater for context.
Kai-Florian Richter, Stephan Winter
Chapter 5. Computational Aspects: How Landmarks Can Be Observed, Stored, and Analysed
Abstract
In this chapter, we will explore how to ‘compute’ a landmark. We will look at ways to calculate that some geographic object sticks out from its background. We will also discuss approaches for selecting the most appropriate landmark for describing specific spatial situations. Both these aspects are important steps for the integration of landmarks in computational services. Therefore, in a third part of this chapter we will discuss commonalities and differences between both aspects, where and why the presented approaches may fail, and what alternatives there are for overcoming these shortcomings.
Kai-Florian Richter, Stephan Winter
Chapter 6. Communication Aspects: How Landmarks Enrich the Communication Between Human and Machine
Abstract
Landmarks are fundamental in human communication about their environments. This chapter will discuss what it takes to incorporate them into human-computer interaction. We will look at the principle requirements for such communication, and discuss how computers may produce and understand verbal and graphical references to landmarks. We will also present some results of studies testing the advantages of landmarks in human-computer interaction. We will see that there are huge benefits to gain from this integration, but also that there are still issues that need to be resolved.
Kai-Florian Richter, Stephan Winter
Chapter 7. Conclusions: What Is Known and What Is Still Challenging About Landmarks
Abstract
This chapter concludes the book. It briefly summarizes what we have discussed in the previous six chapters and then looks ahead. In particular, we contemplate what it takes for a geospatial system to be intelligent , and what we still miss at the moment in order to build such systems. Overall, we believe that we have provided an appreciation and better understanding of both the challenges and potential of landmarks in intelligent geospatial systems.
Kai-Florian Richter, Stephan Winter
Backmatter
Metadaten
Titel
Landmarks
verfasst von
Kai-Florian Richter
Stephan Winter
Copyright-Jahr
2014
Electronic ISBN
978-3-319-05732-3
Print ISBN
978-3-319-05731-6
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-05732-3