Materials and Processes

It is always impressive to look at the hardware of space ventures, whether in the form of launch vehicles culminating with the successful launch and landings of the Space Shuttle, of land-sited test chambers, of satellites being tested, of large antenna dishes, or of complex electronic circuitry under high magnification. But this is not the real space capability. The real capability lies in the people, in their technical competence, and in their manipulations of the metals and materials which have made space communication programmes and space science programmes possible.

The Space Age began in 1957, with an 83 kg Russian Sputnik satellite bleeping greetings to a surprised world. Since that spectacular beginning, intensive effort has gone into the scientific exploration of space, exploration of the Moon and distant planets, manufacturing of materials in space laboratories, and exploiting orbiting satellites for communication, navigation and observation of the Earth.

The role of a Product Assurance Manager is to support the spacecraft project by providing technical management leadership in applying a number of technical disciplines to the design, manufacture, testing, handling, and operation of the project. At the same time he needs to ensure that each discipline has the required impact to produce high-quality hardware for the amount of money spent.

Potential sources of failure are frequently identified during the manufacturing and assembly stages of spacecraft production.

The failure mode of spacecraft materials can often be assessed by detailed examination of the fracture surfaces. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) is an invaluable tool in such failure investigations because it extends both the depth of field and the magnifications obtainable by conventional light microscopes.

There are several classifications of processes which will metallurgically join parts as utilized in the production of electronic circuitry. These interconnection techniques are usually formed by the application or generation of heat, and, depending on the temperatures attained, are generally referred to as soldering, brazing, or welding. Where once dissimilar metals have been in contact, the joining temperatures produce a continuous volume of metal or metal alloy that is intended to enhance the electrical properties of the joint and preclude interfacial corrosion.

The ultimate idea in distributed communications might be the development of a ‘wristwatch’ telephone system which provides for instant electronic communication between two locations anywhere on Earth. This concept of a miniature personal terminal is forwarded neither as science fiction, nor as a prophecy of future technology.

The low Earth orbit (LEO) environment is defined as that region of space between 200 and 1000 km (124 and 621 miles) above the Earth. It was reasonably well characterized in the 1950s, during the prelude to the race into space, by means of sounding rockets equipped with monitoring devices for recording air pressure, temperature, and gaseous composition. Many of the data obtained from those early space flights are suitably accurate for today’s calculations and have been discussed in Chap. 2 and compiled into Table 2.​3. In just one decade, the 1960s, human beings began to extend their physical boundaries by initially venturing into LEO and then progressing to explore the mountains and valleys of the Moon. The first human to orbit the Earth was cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin in the Vostok 1 spacecraft on the 12th April 1961. Since then, manned spaceflight included the Mercury (Atlas ELV) missions, the Gemini (Titan ELV) missions, and the Apollo (Saturn ELV) missions that gave 12 human beings the opportunity to walk on an extraterrestrial surface, with the first manned landed on the Moon in 1969 with Apollo 11, and the final Moon-landing in 1972 with Apollo 17. The 1970s saw the launch of several Salyut space stations and three Skylabs, followed in the 1980s and 90s with the Mir station, the Kvant module, and the many Space Shuttle launches (for the placement of satellites into orbit, ejection of probes into space, retrieval of spacecraft, and utilization of Spacelab which remained attached to the Shuttle’s cargo bay). At the time of writing, it is the International Space Station (ISS) that continues to be the most newsworthy space activity. This is the biggest construction to fly in space and can be readily seen from the ground as it completes 16 orbits per day. Huge solar panels, totaling approximately one acre are attached to the central truss of ISS—the dimensions are equivalent to the length of a football field, the habitable volume is as large as a six-bedroom house and the total mass is just over 450 metric tons (tonnes). Awe-inspiring, as ISS was built by astronauts and cosmonauts, 216 have lived there, bringing each part of the construction from Earth by Shuttles and various other cargo-vehicles (2015 data).