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2013 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

4. Swiss Residential Built Environment

verfasst von : Stefan N. Grösser

Erschienen in: Co-Evolution of Standards in Innovation Systems

Verlag: Physica-Verlag HD

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Abstract

This book is about standard formation and technology diffusion in a specific inert socio-economic system: the residential built environment. The macro-behavior of this system emerges from the interaction of multiple agents. These agents base their actions on their objectives and perceptions, and are therefore acting in a context of bounded rationality. Additional properties of the residential built environment are long asset lifetime, significant information and implementation delays, and tightly coupled interactions of economically related but legally independent agents. The book focuses on the Swiss residential built environment, whose important empirical properties are explicated in Sect. 4.1. Section 4.2 abstracts from these empirical details and provides conceptual systems models which build the foundation for the systems models in Chaps.​ 5 and 6. Section 4.3, then, details the case study settings in the representative Swiss economic region of the mid-sized municipality of Langenthal.

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Vorheriges Kapitel Research Design
Nächstes Kapitel Co-evolution of Legal and Voluntary Standards: Development of Energy Efficiency in Swiss Residential Building Codes
Fußnoten
1
The population scenarios are labeled as “mittleres Szenario A-00-2010” (middle), “hohes Szenario B-00-2010” (high), and “tiefes Szenario C-00-2010” (low). These three scenarios are the base population scenarios of the Swiss Federal Office of Statistics (SFOS, 2011a). Even though they are calculated until 2060, the mathematical model in Chap.​ 6 will be simulated only until 2050, because for this year comparisons with expert forecasts become are possible.
 
2
The simple linear regression model follows the standard format: \( y = {\beta_0} + {\beta_1}{x_1} + \varepsilon \), with β 0 as the intercept, β 1 as the slope of the line of best fit, ε as the error term, x 1 as the Swiss population living in the built environment, and yi as the number of buildings. The estimation using the ordinary least square method results in: β 0  = −1709809 (t-value: 4.42); β 1  = 0.4228 (t-value: 7.2); adjusted R2 = 0.944. All results are highly significant. The error term is randomly distributed. The regression equation is used to compute the number of buildings for three population scenarios. The results are shown in Fig. 4.1. The variable “average number of persons per household” is not used for estimation purposes since it is calculated from the population and the number of houses. Including this term in the regression model would cause multicollinearity in the regression model.
 
3
Refurbishment is a complex topic because it depends on contingent system characteristics, for instance, legal acts to protect existing building matter, the economic feasibility of refurbishment alternatives, investor’s willingness to pay, the level of discretionary income, and the rents of the economic regions (Meier & Ott, 2005). This book abstracts from specifics about refurbishment. The specific challenges of refurbishing the residential built environment are addressed by Müller (2012).
 
4
Nowadays, Swiss utilities motivate the replacement of electrical heating with financial subsidies (e.g., Elektrizitätswerk Altdorf, 2011).
 
5
In case the amount of generated energy would be used as basis for comparisons, instead of the relative number of installations, the figures would change slightly. This is because the fraction does not account for the capacity of the individual installations. For instance, long-distance heating installations are used to provide heat to communities with multiple households. A more detailed analysis would have to account for this.
 
6
Since 1998, it is possible to trace buildings with a Minergie certificate. This data, even though it accounts only for a small share of the building stock and it applies only for buildings after 1998, is shown in Sect. 4.1.2. Moreover, the Minergie certification is currently associated with a significant cost which leads to a number of unreported cases which is assumed to be about at least as high as the number of certified building (personal communication with a representative of the Minergie Association in 2008).
 
7
I thank the Energieberatung Oberaargau (Langenthal, Canton Berne, energy consultant: Mr. R. Leuenberger) for pointing me to this fact.
 
8
The product used here is a Minergie-certified window (producer: Stocker Fenster AG, Switzerland, http://​www.​stocker-fenster.​ch; product number: Holz-Metall HME-3).
 
9
The product used here is a Minergie-certified module for wall construction (producer: ISOVER AG, Switzerland, http://​www.​isover.​ch; product number: 21–300).
 
10
The principle is the same for the heating of water (shown in Fig. 4.4).
 
11
In the last two decades, many different heat pump technologies have been developed. For a more detailed discussion and comparison of different heating technologies, the interested reader will find the following references useful: Ochsner (2008) or Egg and Howard (2011).
 
12
Using the International System of Units (Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, 2011), a joule is equal to a watt second (Ws). Mathematically this is: 3.6 MJ = 3,600,000 J = 1,000,000 Ws = 3,600 KWs = 1 KWh.
 
13
This definition slightly deviates from the definition of the energy performance value of the Minergie association, which includes also the energy for the ventilation system. Since the demand for electrical drive of the ventilation system is currently only a small fraction of the total demand, and since only an evanescent small fraction of Swiss residential buildings have such a ventilation system, the exclusion seems justifiable.
 
14
The requirements of the basic Minergie standard have improved over time. From 1998 until 2010, the Minergie certificate required an EPV of less than 60 KWh/m2/a. In the latest version of the Minergie standard, an EPV of less than 38 KWh/m2/a is required (Minergie, 2010). This is yet another example of the intensification of the concept of energy efficiency over time, as I have introduced it in Chap.​ 1.
 
15
31st December 2010: 17,820 certified buildings (Minergie, 2011); 1,623,016 total number of residential building (STAT-TAB, 2011).
 
16
Delley and Mader (1986) provide an accurate historical account of the development. I make use of their work as well as the work by the Swiss Federal Office of Energy (2005) for this part material of the book.
 
17
The cited publications report heat oil equivalents as the measure. I use a conversion factor from heat oil equivalents to MJ of 36.0 MJ/l, which I have taken from the cited studies.
 
18
The original study (SFOE, 2007) differentiates between single-family and multi-family residential buildings. I have calculated a mean value to account for both types of buildings.
 
19
I conceptualize an agent as an aggregated representation of a socio-economic entity that performs a function in the residential built environment. Hence, an agent represents not an individual, but a group of individuals that fulfills the same function in the system.
 
20
The enumeration of these agents is the result of a workshop during the empirical phase of the case study.
 
21
As mentioned earlier, the book does not address in detail the residential building refurbishing.
 
22
For professional building owners: 7.6 Billion Swiss Francs; 4,508 buildings; 14,050 accommodation units; 3.12 accommodation/building. For private building owners: 8.7 Billion Swiss Francs; 10,366 buildings; 15,603 accommodation units; 1.50 accommodation/building (STAT-TAB, 2011).
 
23
The reader interested in more details about the residential built environment might refer to Koller (1995), who provides an elaborated description of the built environment. Further useful references with a high level of detail are also found in Müller (in preparation) and Meier and Ott (2005).
 
24
Energy efficiency (ee) has been introduced in Chap.​ 1. I want to reiterate that energy efficiency is a dynamic concept that improves over time. What an innovative ee entity is at time t loses this innovativeness status over time and becomes a normal ee entity at time t + x. The speed of this outdating process depends on the degree of technological change or the industry clockspeed (Fine, 1998).
 
25
\( \hskip 6pt {\hbox{Total Housing Stoc}}{{\hbox{k}}_{\rm{t}}} = \sum\limits_{{{\rm{i}} = {1}}}^{{3}} {{\hbox{Housing Stoc}}{{\hbox{k}}_{{{\rm{i,t}}}}}} \); with: i = 1: innovative ee housing, i = 2: improved ee housing, i = 3: normal ee housing.
 
26
\( {\hbox{Total Annual Energy}}\;{\hbox{Demand of Housing Stoc}}{{\hbox{k}}_{\rm{t}}} = \sum\limits_{{{\rm{i}} = {1}}}^{{3}} {\hbox{Annual Energy Demand}} \;{\hbox{of ee}} \;{{\hbox{Housin}}{{\hbox{g}}_{{{\rm{i,t}}}}}} \); with: i = 1: annual energy demand of innovative ee housing, i = 2: annual energy demand of improved ee housing, i = 3: annual energy demand of normal ee housing.
 
27
\( {\hbox{Total Construction Capacity for Housin}}{{\hbox{g}}_{\rm{t}}} = \sum\limits_{{{\rm{i}} = {1}}}^{{3}} {{\hbox{Construction Capacity for ee Housin}}{{\hbox{g}}_{{{\rm{i,t}}}}}} \); with: i = 1: construction capacity for innovative ee housing, i = 2: construction capacity for improved ee housing, i = 3: construction capacity for normal ee housing.
 
28
More information about the Center for General Ecology and the research project is available at http://​www.​ikaoe.​unibe.​ch as well as http://​www.​deeb.​ch.
 
29
The National Research Program 54 has three objectives: (1) expanding knowledge of how the built environment works, (2) sustainability in building planning and construction, and (3) sustainability in the management of the built environment throughout its life cycle (National Research Program, 2011). More information about the National Research Program as well as the official documents regarding the DeeB-project can be obtained on the website http://​www.​nfp54.​ch.
 
30
A selection of the type of case study occurs among the following possible types: critical case, extreme or unique case, representative or typical case, revelatory case, and longitudinal case (Yin, 2003).
 
31
The website of the city of Langenthal is available at: http://​www.​langenthal.​ch/​de/​toolbar2/​english.
 
32
The documents for each interview include: document summaries (doc), cognitive maps (Banxia’s mdl), tape recordings of the interviews (wav), written summary of the cognitive maps (doc), and causal loop diagrams (mdl). For privacy reasons, this content is not accessible to the public. The language used throughout the empirical research is German.
 
33
The number of participants: first workshop (22), second workshop (30), third workshop (30), final workshop (31).
 
34
The cognitive maps that have been developed during the interviews and the workshops are not provided in this book.
 
35
For each workshop, an extensive documentation (in German) has been developed which has been shared with the research participants. Additional feedback about the documents from the research participants has been included in updated versions.
 
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Metadaten
Titel
Swiss Residential Built Environment
verfasst von
Stefan N. Grösser
Copyright-Jahr
2013
Verlag
Physica-Verlag HD
Buch
Co-Evolution of Standards in Innovation Systems

Print ISBN: 978-3-7908-2857-3

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-7908-2858-0

Copyright-Jahr: 2013

DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7908-2858-0_4

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