Sustainable Bioeconomy

The concept of circularity has become key for the bioeconomy. The objective of this chapter is to discuss the concept of the optimal level of circularity, how it can evolve over time and how it can be operationally used in decision-making about the bioeconomy. In the background of the current literature on circular bioeconomy, we first illustrate the concept of the optimal degree of circularity using a simple market equilibrium framework. Then we elaborate on how this can be connected to the reality of transition to a circular bioeconomy. From an economic point view, the identification of an optimal pathway towards a circular bioeconomy driven by cost of recycling and externalities is central to ensure economic efficiency. In practice, a series of information obstacles hinder the implementation (and even the quantification) of this pathway. Hence, articulated policy mixes are usually needed to promote transition towards a circular bioeconomy.

Economics influences and is influenced by culture; in turn, culture is both influenced by and influences the sustainability of the environment. Furthermore, to the extent that moral judgment encompasses human and non-human life, the environment and its sustainability are given significance within the economic system. At present, there is increasing discussion of the implementation of a bioeconomy within the present economic framework. This chapter discusses the role of culture and education in promoting a moral perspective of the human responsibility in establishing sustainable economic growth. The argument made is that a bioeconomy can promote sustainability only if consumption choices implicitly consider holistic impacts and are motivated by cultural values that are based in moral judgement. Otherwise, sustainable economic growth may be limited to the production process alone and fail to promote overall sustainability in economic outcomes.

The national and international scientific community considers Ecuador’s biodiversity to be a comparative—even competitive—advantage of a new development paradigm, which could pave the way for a future that is less dependent on non-renewable resources. Accordingly, the concept of bioeconomy has raised attention from different sectors, but its understanding and policy development to exploit its potential are still very limited. In the present work, we propose a methodological approach to assess the economic and social contribution of the bioeconomic sector in Ecuador. First, the theoretical and empirical foundations are delineated, based on conceptual aspects and similar previous case studies. Second, three available models (input–output model, general equilibrium model, and social accounting matrix) are evaluated in terms of comparability, applicability, external validity, and scalability. Based on a comparison of the models, the input–output matrix ranks best in terms of comparability and external validity. Aware that other countries in the region are also interested in implementing similar efforts, we have completed this exercise prioritizing the comparability (across and within countries) and external validity aspects. Thus, this work may aid in the elaboration of future evaluation approaches in other Latin American countries.

The ever increasing global population, continuous dependence on fossil fuels for chemicals, fuels, feeds, and food substitutes, movement of population towards urban, and emergence of more urban cities, have created a shift towards more renewable technologies for sustainable development of environment, economy, and society. One of the renewable technologies which promotes sustainability is efficient waste management technologies. Existing waste management technologies such as open dumping, land filling, and incineration results in generation of more greenhouse gas emissions. The concept of circular economy against existing linear economy emphasizes, if the wastes are managed properly more resources can be extracted out if it, which not only contributes to sustainable economic development but also to environment and society in general. Wastes can be broadly classified into degradable (biowastes) and non-degradable waste, at present the per-capita generation of waste is 0.74 kg/day; as the population continues to rise the amount of wastes generated will double causing serious environmental, public, health, and socio-economic and political concerns. In order to be more sustainable, in the recent years global attention is focused towards valorization of biowastes into energy, food, feed, chemicals generation. This chapter deals with different types of wastes viz., biomass, food, industrial, animal, municipal solid wastes, their characteristics and scope for valorization into fuels, chemicals, and food.

Agro-residues are kind of the lignocellulosic biomass feedstocks used for both biofuel and biochemical production via a biorefinery approach. The renewable bio-products from these residues have the potential to replace the petroleum sources. Immediately after the harvest of the first crop, farmers have a short period for land preparation to raise the next consecutive crop. Due to lower prices, huge quantity, and poor logistics, farmers are forced to burning of residues at an open field. Existing disposal methods of agro-residues management such as in situ burning would create air pollution, and the biomass is burnt into ashes without utilizing their biofuel or biochemical potentials. The biorefinery would aim for minimum or zero waste generation and to produce biofuels and value-added biochemicals from agro-residues. The process selection for a biorefinery is entirely dependent on targeted end products. This chapter briefly discusses the valorization of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin of agro-residues for biofuels and biochemicals production. The barriers to the commercialization of biorefinery plants are also discussed.

Flavour and aroma are the important attributes which determine the sensory perception of food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic products. Traditionally, flavour and aroma compounds are extracted from plant and animal sources. In order to meet the huge demand and expenses for various products, the artificial chemicals are now being added. Due to the chemo-phobia and health hazards, artificial flavours and fragrances are not acceptable by the consumers. Biotechnological methods provide better and eco-friendly substitutes for artificial flavour and fragrances. The bio-routes for their synthesis are based on enzymes methods, de novo microbial processes, and bioconversion/biotransformation using microorganisms. Solid-state fermentation carried out by microorganisms can produce a variety of potentially valuable aromatic compounds. Different agro-industrial wastes such as plant residues, bran, straw, flowers, fruit pods can be used as the raw materials which reduces the manufacturing costs of these bio-products and also solves the problem of environmental pollution. Advances in genetic and metabolic engineering are newer approaches of biotechnology which has opened a fenestella in the production of flavour and fragrances.

Phytochemicals are produced by plants which possess bioactive compounds responsible for plant defence against pests, pathogens, and other natural enemies. India is one of the mega diversity countries in the world, having many kinds of medicinal and aromatic plants. Bioactive compounds from plants will serve as a raw material for phytoinsecticides. It has several advantages over chemical insecticides in terms of biodegradability, safe to non-target organisms, and can be easily extracted from the locally available plant sources. It is an essential component in the Integrated Pest Management (IPM) of field and also stored product pests. Phytochemicals from neem, pyrethrum, sabadilla, and ryania based products are commercially available and are used for the management of agricultural pests. There is a huge demand to develop and employ phytochemicals for the management of stored pests since stored insect pests cause severe damage to the stored produce. The stored product pests reduce the quality of produce, contaminate the produce with uric acid and exuvia, and also produce allergens which results in reduction of commercial value of the products. There is a great potential to use phytochemicals for the management of stored pest and to develop commercial formulations for the benefit of the human beings. The identification of suitable plant material, developing suitable extraction method, proper testing against target organism, and developing formulations are important for integrating these phytochemicals in the IPM of stored product pests.

Indigenous farming methods as a part of the indigenous knowledge system (IKS) are complex, environmentally friendly, sustainable, cost-effective, culture-specific and play a vital role in the cultivation of vegetables and livestock among indigenous communities. The use of IKS has been beneficial to those practising indigenous farming methods; however, its benefits are highly dependent on the agricultural models that are utilised. There is an association between the implementation of IKS in agriculture and the natural form of the products produced. The link of the two concepts of the method of farming and the form of products enables the increase of food production, with a positive impact on food security in communities. The focus of this study was to assess the impact that the usage of IKS has on sustainable agriculture and to establish how this impact also affects food security in the selected communities of the City of Tshwane Metropolitan. The study was conducted in the geographical area of the City of Tshwane Metropolitan, but in different localised geographical areas. The objectives of the study are: (1) To describe and identify challenges and issues faced in sustainable agriculture in selected rural communities in the City of Tshwane Metropolitan; (2) To identify best practices in using IKS ensuring food security through sustainable agriculture in selected rural communities in the City of Tshwane Metropolitan; and (3) To identify ways in which indigenous knowledge and its practices and innovations might enhance livelihoods in a manner that is ecologically sustainable, economically viable, and socially acceptable. The collection of data was done through semi-structured face-to-face interviews utilising a questionnaire as a guide. The interviews were conducted with farm owners and workers in different geographical areas of the City of Tshwane Metropolitan. The observation method assisted in reducing some of the challenges in this research, for example, the language barrier (with the majority of the participants, the interview had to be conducted in the local language of either Sepedi, Setswana, Zulu, or the local dialect informally known as “Pretoria taal”). Purposive sampling was used and the sample researched was from a small holder farmer database provided by the Agricultural Research Council-Vegetables and Ornamental Plants (ARC-VOP). The findings of the study can be a base for a more in-depth focus on the knowledge and the best practices that exist in the selected communities, which could reduce food insecurity and encourage the growth of agriculture in these communities and households. Although the data was collected in one municipality area, the location of each participant was in a different geographical area that allowed a much broader knowledge base and practices in the field of IKS and sustainable agriculture. The results indicated that although the participants appreciated the benefits of IKS, as it is associated with natural farming of produce, the benefits of modern technology could also be utilised where the combination of a variety of knowledge systems could enable the farmers to get more yield on their crops. The commercially focused farmers indicated that they utilised both methods in their agricultural practices to enhance production and meet the current food demand. The usage of IKS and other traditional agricultural practices seemed to be more prevalent in community-based farming rather than those in commercial farming. One of the underlined benefits of IKS sustainable farming, although IKS is only recently being documented, is that it gives an opportunity for communities to come together and share stories of success or failures and lessons learned. Indigenous knowledge is normally shared in the local language, which makes it easy to understand. The combination of modern technology and traditional farming techniques enables effective and faster farming activity using less energy. Hence, one of the recommendations is an in-depth study of how to utilise the positive and functional attributes of IKS to modern farming and to commercial agricultural practices. This can allow the enhancement of both schools of thoughts and yield positive results. For example, in the interview session with the representative and farming expert from Agri-Skills, the researcher got the opportunity to see farming tools designed by Agri-Skills, which incorporate traditional farming methods with the latest technology to enhance the farming process. These farming tools are mainly used in the rural farming areas, which have limited resources. The study thus recommends that the sharing of IKS and incorporating it with technology and modern agriculture can create a new dynamic, agricultural practice that will benefit commercial farmers, community or primary farmers, and households with functional gardens.

Biodiversity and net primary productivity in the tropical ecosystems were the highest in the world, about 750 gC/m²/year. This abundance is because it is supported by high temperatures, rainfall, moisture, light intensity, and rapid organic cycling along a year in the tropical regions. Moist tropical forests are blessed without anyone planting, maintaining, and disturbing them in the long-term periods, so they can function as the lungs of the world to provide oxygen and maintain the earth’s climate. Although biological productivity is 10 times, the economic value is only half compared to temperate ecosystems. The new paradigm from extraction into the empowerment of natural resources will provide new challenges to move from the red and green economic concept to the blue economic concept with added values of economy, socio-culture, and environment aspect for sustainable development. The synergism between biological resources (flora, fauna, human) and land resources (land, minerals, water, air, microclimate) by the development of Integrated Bio-cycle Management (IBM) through empowerment of life cycle assessment as a closed-to-natural ecosystem would manage our tropical natural resources through multifunctional and multi-product system. Information about agroecosystem, life cycle assessment, biowaste, bioenergy, bioeconomy on tropical natural resources would give valuable concepts for sustainable development of smart tropical agroecosystem management. This integrated farming system can produce food, feed, fiber, fertilizer, wood, energy, water, oxygen, medicine, mysticism, and tourism, so they have added values in environmental, economic, socio-cultural, and health aspects. This system is essential for the sustainable and productive management of tropical natural resources.

Biopesticides are the biological agents used to control the pest population. It includes the use of botanicals, microbial pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, viruses and natural enemies of pests such as parasitoids and predators, nematodes and semiochemicals. Biopesticides play an important role in sustainability of agricultural bioeconomy. The ecosystem benefits rendered by the agriculturally important biological resources warrant inclusion of biopesticides in Integrated Pest Management Programmes. This chapter elaborates different types of biopesticides, their mode of action, formulations available, successful proven biological agents used in the suppression of pests, advantages and disadvantages of each method.

To mitigate the consequences of global warming and climate change, concerted efforts are being undertaken, across the world to switch over from the fossil fuels to renewable energy sources. The potential of biological resources to meet the growing energy demand is significant. Low carbon and decarburization are viewed as an effective way to mitigate enhanced CO₂ emissions and an integral part of the energy transition. Currently, low carbon and decarburization is an international policy priority towards search in eco-friendly energy supply options with enhanced energy efficiency. In the low-carbon economy, bioenergy is essentially important for the benefits it renders to the bioeconomy, socio-economic benefits and it is in fact a valuable substitute to fossil fuels. Indeed, the bioenergy is essential component of “low-carbon energy mix”. Further, technological developments in the bioenergy sector coupled with dynamic initiatives in energy policy provide a sustainable low-carbon pathway.

The face of the earth surface has been changed by the human activities particularly land use changes. World agriculture occupies about 38% of Earth’s terrestrial surface. The modern day agricultural economy has become more energy-intensive. Sustainability in agriculture should ensure both agricultural productivity and environmental safety. Agriculture being one of the important consumer of energy, particularly fossil fuels, generates greenhouse gas emissions. It is very important to curtail the use of high energy and non-renewable energy sources in farming activity. Further, reducing the use of non-renewable energy sources and increasing the efficiency of energy use, would reduce the greenhouse gas emissions from the agriculture sector. Energy auditing is a method to understand which component of the technology involves high energy and inefficient in generating outputs. TNAU Energy Soft 2016 is an energy audit tool, which helps the scientists working on agricultural technologies to identify the better input energy source combination (renewable/non-renewable/commercial/non-commercial) of technology without doing repeated and expensive field trials. This is a simple, user-friendly windows based desktop application which facilitates easy selection of input sources; adds new energy source, crop and field operations; compares six treatments at a stretch. The resulting output includes detailed analysis and abstract of energy use of a single treatment, individual field operation-wise energy use within a treatment, net energy benefit, energy efficiency and category-wise energy use. The TNAU Energy Soft 2016 helps scientist to ensure sustainability in agricultural productivity, environmental safety and sustainable bioeconomy through finding the ways and means of reducing non-renewable fossil fuel based inputs and increasing the use of renewable and biological resources.

Homestead food garden (HFG) projects are supported by government which attempts to alleviate poverty in food insecure households. Despite the fact that homestead food gardens are seen as a solution to food security in the Gauteng Province and other parts of the world, the issue of unsustainability and failure of these programmes after government support ceases cannot be ignored. A household survey was conducted in the Gauteng Province by the Agricultural Research Council (ARC) and the Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development (GDARD) to establish a sustainable mechanism for homestead food gardens. The following objectives were addressed: to identify socio-economic factors that influence sustainability of homestead gardens; to identify factors influencing garden availability; and to recommend the mechanism for improving the sustainability of homestead gardens. A total of 1150 households participated and were spread as follows: City of Johannesburg (319); City of Tshwane (270); Ekurhuleni Metropolitan (141); Sedibeng (216); and the West Rand (204). Quantitative and qualitative designs were used as a questionnaire, and stakeholder discussions and field observations were part of the data collection. A purposive sampling technique was used and data was coded, captured, and analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Food security status was also in line with the fact that South Africa is food insecure at a household level in contradiction to the national level. A whopping number of households interviewed were food insecure (860), as compared to households that were food secure (290). This food security situation is worrying because 695 households go to sleep at night hungry because there was not enough food and about 395 households could go the whole day and night without eating anything. It was also established that in terms of sustainability, not all household gardens are economically viable, or socially and environmentally sustainable. Nine hundred and seventy-one households agreed that gardens do not generate income, and very few households (179) emphasised that gardens were generating income. There was an almost equal response in terms of gardens supporting social initiatives. In terms of environmental sustainability, 933 households were not aware about the environmental issues. In conclusion, the majority of households felt that the HFG Programme is very good (371), good (490), and fair (191). Only a few households felt that the initiative is poor (70) and very poor (28). The majority of households felt that the support received is very good (443), good (341), and fair (166). Quite a number of households felt that the support received was poor (105) and very poor (95). Hence, some of the recommended activities to be included in the mechanism include stakeholder and community mobilisation, situational analysis, food garden inputs, nutrition education, participation of the community in homestead programme design and implementation, training, and monitoring.