Since drought causes changes in molecular, biochemical, physiological, and morphological aspects resulting in negative effects on plant growth and development (Nam et al.
2020; Taha et al.
2020; Babaei et al.
2021; El–Metwally and Saudy
2021; El–Metwally et al.
2021; Salem et al.
2022), injurious impacts of water deficit on different sunflower traits were occurred (Table
3,
4 and
5). The present study confirmed the negative impact of water deficit/on plant physiological status. Owing to the relationship between the plant biochemical compounds and deficit water, drought stress led to degradation of photosynthesis pigments (chlorophylls and carotenoids), as well as accumulation of proline (Table
3). Such findings are in accordance with those recorded by Manivannan et al. (
2007) and Saudy et al. (
2021) who reported that subjecting sunflower plants to water deficit caused decreases in total chlorophyll and carotenoids and increases proline content in leaves. During drought, reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulate, which are toxic at elevated levels, due to reduced electron transport chain activity (Hasanuzzaman et al.
2020). Overproduction of ROS is concomitant to various abiotic stresses (Gill and Tuteja
2010; Hossain et al.
2014; Souri et al.
2019; Hatamian et al.
2020). ROS react with and deteriorate nucleic acids (DNA), proteins, photosynthetic pigments, and membrane lipids (Zulfiqar and Ashraf
2021). Elevated ROS levels lead to inactivation of proteins and inhibit the activity of multiple enzymes involved in metabolic pathways, and result in oxidation of lipids and DNA (Hossain et al.
2014). Consequently, ROS can damage membrane and other essential macromolecules (such as photosynthetic pigments, proteins, DNA and lipids), so reducing contents of chlorophylls and carotenoides as shown under drought stress (Table
3). However, plants have natural defense systems involving non–enzymatic and enzymatic antioxidants that efficiently ameliorate the negative impacts of excessive ROS (Zulfiqar and Ashraf
2021). Moreover, plants acclimate to ROS–induced stress by producing various beneficial compatible solutes, such as proline and glycine betaine (Shemi et al.
2021). Subjecting sunflower plants to drought stress increases proline content while reduced the activity of proline oxidase in leaves (Manivannan et al.
2007). Content of chlorophyll, which is one of the major chloroplast components for photosynthesis, has a positive relationship with photosynthetic rate (Anjum et al.
2011). Degradation in photosynthetic pigments can directly limit photosynthetic potential which adversely affects plant productivity. The decrease in chlorophyll content under drought stress may be the result of pigment photo–oxidation and chlorophyll degradation. Photosynthetic pigments of plants are important for harvesting light and production of reducing powers (Anjum et al.
2011). Accordingly, marked reductions were exhibited in leaf area, head diameter, seed yield/head, seed index, seed yield ha
−1, seed oil content and iodine value (Table
4) as well as water use efficiency (Fig.
1) of sunflower subjected to drought stress. Many researchers have reported decreasing performance of sunflower growth under water stress conditions (Erdem et al.
2006; Nezami et al.
2008). Water deficit reduces sunflower yield and quality (El–Bially et al.
2018; El–Metwally et al.
2022). Following drought, stomata close progressively with a parallel decline in net photosynthesis and water–use efficiency (Anjum et al.
2011). The closure of stomata significantly decreases the photosynthetic and transpiration rate (Jaleel et al.
2007) and negatively influences the crop growth and productivity (Du et al.
2010). Drought stress significantly decreased all the photosynthetic parameters, i.e. net photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, internal carbon dioxide concentration, as well as water use efficiency (WUE) and transpiration rate (Hayat et al.
2008). The lack of photosynthetic pigment contents in the leaves (Table
3), under stresses, leads to a decrease in the efficiency of photosynthesis, which in turn affects the productivity and decrease seeds oil content of sunflower plants (Saudy et al.
2021). Moreover, the harmful effect of drought could be attributed to reduce the availability of nutrients in soil with disturbance in plant nutritional status associated low water supply (Saudy and El–Metwally
2019; Mubarak et al.
2021; Salem et al.
2021; Abd–Elrahman et al.
2022).
Not only SA had a beneficial effect on plant growth and development under water stress conditions but also under normal water supply. In this respect, SA is one of the main plant growth regulators that play a vital role in controlling and modulating photosynthesis under both normal and stressful condition (Arif et al.
2020). SA has key role in enhancing photosynthesis by upregulating photosynthetic enzyme and carbohydrate metabolism (Khodary
2004). SA application increased photosynthetic activity, chlorophyll content, and enzyme activity under both normal and stress conditions (Li et al.
2014). Therefore, total chlorophyll and carotenoids increased while proline content decreased with SA supply under every irrigation level (Table
3). Such findings may be reflected and interpreted, partially at least, the enhancements achieved in sunflower growth and productivity due to exogenous application of SA. The enhancement in sunflower growth with application of SA could be attributed to the role of SA in maintenance the photosynthetic machinery and activity, then promoting the plant growth. SA, which is a plant hormone (Davies
2010) is a multifaceted plant growth regulator which participates in a wide range of growth, metabolism and defense systems; it acts a typical plant hormone modulating all plant responses and providing plant immunity against various stresses (Arif et al.
2020). SA enhances various physiological processes like photosynthesis, chlorophyll and other pigment, plant growth and development, and flowering (Arif et al.
2020). SA plays a key role in providing tolerance to the plants exposed to water stress, i.e. drought or flooding (Hayat et al.
2010). Exogenous application of SA facilitates growth; and flowering; up–regulates photosynthesis; increases the activity of enzymatic and non–enzymatic antioxidants (Arif et al.
2020). Additionally, the generation of ROS during drought stress requires up–regulation of detoxification systems such as super oxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase enzymes and biosynthesis of ROS scavengers (You and Chan
2015). Herein, SA enhances the activities of antioxidants enzyme system i.e. ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) with a concomitant decline in the activity of catalase (CAT), and can protect and enhance the enzymes of nitrate metabolism under stressful environments (reviewed by Hayat et al.
2010). Also, SA enhances the activity of ROS scavenger enzymes, participates in eliciting abiotic stress responses such as drought (Arif et al.
2020), Application of SA in drought–stressed plants resulted in growth recovery, increased photosynthesis, and reduced oxidative stress (Zulfiqar et al.
2021). Therefore, foliar application of SA improved leaf area, head diameter, seed yield/head, seed index, seed yield ha
−1 (Table
4), oil seed content and iodine value (Table
5) as well as WUE (Fig.
2) of sunflower. Also, WUE increases with alleviating water stress by applying SA (Fig.
3). Thus, the maximal values of WUE were recorded with WR
100% × SA
1.0, followed by that of WR
100% × SA
0.5. These findings could be owing to producing seed yields under such conditions more than under other ones, resulting in higher WUE values. At low WUE, photosynthetic carbon assimilation is decreased due to decreasing flow of CO
2 into mesophyll tissue and the closure of stomata (Chaves et al.
2003; Flexas et al.
2004). Following drought, stomata close progressively with a parallel decline in net photosynthesis and WUE (Anjum et al.
2011). Moreover, different concentrations of SA increased total leaf chlorophyll content, photosynthesis and stomatal conductance under normal and stress conditions (Bastam et al.
2012; Ghasemzadeh and Jaafar
2013). SA stimulated CO
2 fixation and efficiency of photosynthetic quantum (Poór et al.
2011). SA also helped to ignite photosynthetic process by closing stomata and by suppressing or slowing electron transport metabolism of PSII (Janda et al.
2012). Photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, gaseous exchange, CO
2 assimilation rate, and chlorophyll content were enhanced after applying SA (Babar et al.
2014). SA elevated photosynthetic rate by facilitating carboxylation rate, chlorophyll amount that is SPAD values and by increasing turgor (Tahjib–Ul–Arif et al.
2018). Additionally, SA increased the chlorophyll, carotenoid, nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus level and nitrate reductase activity (Hashmi et al.
2012). It also maintains membrane integrity of chloroplast membrane (Huang et al.
2016).