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2004 | Buch

Optical Technology until the Year 2000: An Historical Overview Kapitel lesen Erstes Kapitel lesen

Optical Sensors

Industrial Environmental and Diagnostic Applications

verfasst von: Dr. Ramaier Narayanaswamy, Professor Dr. Otto S. Wolfbeis

Verlag: Springer Berlin Heidelberg

Buchreihe : Springer Series on Chemical Sensors and Biosensors

Enthalten in: Professional Book Archive

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Über dieses Buch

Optical sensor technology has reached a level of technological maturity that makes it a promising candidate for applications to specific sensing challenges including those in environmental monitoring, in process control (particularly in biotechnology), in clinical assays where low-cost one-way sensing elements are needed, and in other areas. Optical sensors can be used as fiber optic microsensors, as planar coatings in bioreactors, in microtiterplate format, in disposable single-shot devices, and as planar membranes that can be imaged using sensitive cameras. The spectral range extends from the UV to the infrared, and from absorption to emission and to surface plasmon resonance. Hence, a variety of schemes are conceivable, and this first volume of the Springer Series on Chemical Sensors and Biosensors gives a state-of-the-art description of this highly sophisticated but very promising technology.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Frontmatter
Chapter 1. Optical Technology until the Year 2000: An Historical Overview
Abstract
This chapter reviews advances in the area of optical sensor technology using indicator probes and labels. It also presents an account of optical sensors based on the use of biomolecules and molecular receptors including molecular imprints. One may wonder why such progress has been made in the past 20 years. In the author’s opinion, this is due to several factors. These include the following:
(a)
New light sources have become available, including light-emitting diodes and diode lasers with their low power consumption and small size, both now spanning the entire visible range (LEDs even available with emission peaks at 370 nm);
 
(b)
new photodiodes and CCDs have become available with hitherto unseen sensitivity for visible and near-infrared light;
 
(c)
the advent of fiber optics and of integrated waveguide optics with excellent transmission that extends far into the near infrared;
 
(d)
wave guides have become available that also transmit mid-infrared and infrared light;
 
(e)
fast detectors, oscilloscopes and log-in amplifiers are now available at low cost; these allow sensitive and highly time-resolved measurements;
 
(f)
new detection schemes including surface plasmon resonance, evanescent wave sensing have found their way into sensor technology;
 
(g)
fluorescence spectroscopies (which are so useful for sensing purposes) have become particularly widespread and include the measurement of fluorescence (or phosphorescence) intensity, decay time, energy transfer, quenching efficiency, polarization, and allow gated measurements that can eliminate interfering background luminescence;
 
(h)
new biomolecular receptors (synthetic, made from plastic, or genetically engineered) are available that may be used for sensing purposes;
 
(i)
substantial progress has been made in nucleic acid chemistry and protein chemistry, including the immobilization of these biomolecules;
 
(j)
progress in polymer chemistry, which is particularly significant since polymer chemistry plays a major role in optical sensor technology; this is particularly true for sensor matrices, biocompatible materials, and new materials including composite polymers (e.g. for molecular imprints), hydrogels, and sol-gels;
 
(k)
powerful data processors and data loggers have become available at affordable prices; finally,
 
(l)
it is believed that interdisciplinary teaching and interdisciplinary conferences like Europtrode have contributed to an improved understanding and interaction between scientists involved in optical sensor technology.
 
Otto S. Wolfbeis
Chapter 2. Molecularly Imprinted Polymers for Optical Sensing Devices
Abstract
A problem of paramount importance in analytical chemistry is selectivity, particularly at low analyte concentrations in the presence of interfering substances. The sensitive and selective determination of a large number of trace compounds in complex samples is of great relevance in many fields such as biotechnology, the environment, food and pharmacentrical industries and health care for diagnosis or treatment of diseases.
Marta Elena Díaz-García, Rosana Badía
Chapter 3. Chromogenic and Fluorogenic Reactands: New Indicator Dyes for Monitoring Amines, Alcohols and Aldehydes
Abstract
In the past few years a wide range of optical sensors for ions has been presented. Sensors for pH are based on the protonation/deprotonation of pH indicator dyes [1] and sensors for cations and anions use a combination of pH indicator dyes with selective ionophores (via the mechanisms of coextraction or ion-exchange) [2]. In the case of coextraction and ion-exchange, the uncoloured ionophore recognizes the analyte while the pH indicator dye changes its colour [2]. This approach is highly cross-sensitive to pH and has not found practical application so far. A more sophisticated and synthetically challenging approach is to use selective fluoro- and chromoionophores [1,3,4]. They are advantageous because the dyes both selectively recognize the analyte and simultaneously change their colour. Fluoroionophores for sodium and potassium with very low cross-sensitivity to pH can be found in the AVL OPTI devices [5].
Gerhard J. Mohr
Chapter 4. Design, Quality Control and Normalization of Biosensor Chips
Abstract
With the completion of the human genome project biochip technologies have boosted and revolutionized automated genomic and proteomic analysis (www.​microarrays.​org; www.​gene-chips.​com) [1–7]. Based on conventional biomolecular techniques such as Southern and Northern blotting, sample preparation and assay was miniaturized by micromachining and microbiochemistry implemented efficiently by automated processes. To use biochip technologies for high throughput applications the system was adapted for high levels of parallelization. The potential of biochips lies in the parallel analysis of a huge number of probes, measured at once instead of one probe after the other. Such a technique speeds up biomolecular analysis tremendously. DNA chips have been widely used for gene expression, functional analysis, gene mapping and genotyping. Measuring RNA levels, however, might not give a complete or accurate description of a biological system. Because proteins mediate nearly all cellular activities, biochips have also been applied at the protein level (“proteomics”) [8, 9].
Claudia Preininger, Ursula Sauer
Chapter 5. Rapid, Multiplex Optical Biodetection for Point-of-Care Applications
Abstract
Despite hopes that antibiotic and vaccine therapies might one day lead to the complete eradication of infectious disease [1], new and emergent pathogens continue to pose a global threat to public health [2]. Even in the present day, infectious disease remains among the top ten causes of death in the United States for all age groups [3]. In part due to increased virulence of recent strains, but also due to a growing cohort of individuals susceptible to severe infection, the U.S. mortality rate caused by influenza has risen to roughly 36,000 per year, exceeding the current rate of HIV/AIDS related deaths in the country [4, 5]. While the victories over bubonic plague (Yersinia pestis), whooping cough (Bordetella pertussis), polio and smallpox (variola) are clearly significant, new diseases represented by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), as well as the tragic reality of biological agents used as weapons of terrorism and mass destruction [6] — offer sobering evidence that the battle against infectious disease is far from over [7].
Frank Y. S. Chuang, Bill W. Colston Jr.
Chapter 6. Multi-functional Biochip for Medical Diagnostics and Pathogen Detection
Abstract
There is an urgent need to develop monitoring devices capable of screening multiple medical diseases and detecting multiple infectious pathogens simultaneously. A critical factor in biomedical diagnostics involves selectivity and sensitivity for detection of a wide variety of biochemical substances (e.g., proteins, metabolites, nucleic acids), biological species or living systems (bacteria, virus or related components) at trace levels in complex biological samples (e.g., tissues, blood, other body fluids, and environmental biosamples). Biosensors are diagnostic devices that employ the powerful molecular recognition capability of bioreceptors such as antibodies, DNA, enzymes and cellular components of living systems. The operating principle of a biosensor involves detection of this molecular recognition and transforming it into another type of signal using a transducer that may produce either an optical signal (i.e., optical biosensors) or an electrochemical signal (i.e., electrochemical biosensors). A biosensor that involves the use of a microchip system for detection is often referred to as a bio-chip.
Tuan Vo-Dinh, Guy Griffin, David L. Stokes, Dimitra N. Stratis-Cullum, Minoo Askari, Alan Wintenberg
Chapter 7. Surface Plasmon Resonance Biosensors for Food Safety
Abstract
Technology for early detection and identification of biological substances is urgently needed in fields such as environmental protection, biotechnology, medicine, and food and drug screening. In the United States, foodborne illnesses caused by chemical contaminants, toxins and bacterial pathogens result in medical and lost productivity costs of up to $ 22 billion annually [1]. Therefore, detection of food safety-related substances is of paramount importance to food producers, processors, distributors and regulatory agencies. Although numerous detection methods have been developed and implemented in centralized testing sites (high performance liquid chromatography, gas chromatography mass spectroscopy, culturing including Gram-staining and microscopic examination, etc.), the intensive search for cost-effective and practical methods capable of detecting very low concentrations of chemical contaminants, toxins and bacterial pathogens in food samples in the field continues. In recent years, various sensor technologies have been developed (electrochemical sensors [2], piezoelectric sensors [3], electrical impedance sensors [4], optical sensors [5]) and tested for detection of analytes implicated in food safety [6, 7]. Optical sensors offer several important advantages. The performance of optical sensors is insensitive to electromagnetic interference. In addition, optical sensors do not require electrical signals in the sensing area and therefore can be operated in hazardous environments of industrial plants. Several types of optical biosensors have been demonstrated for detection of chemical contaminants, bacterial pathogens and toxins in food. These include fluorescence-based sensors [8], grating coupler sensors [9], resonant mirror sensors [10], and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensors [11]. The fluorescence-based sensors offer high sensitivity, but due to the use of labels, they require either multi-step detection protocols resulting in longer detection times or delicately balanced affinities of interacting biomolecules for displacement assays [12] causing sensor cross-sensitivity to non-target analytes. Grating coupler, resonant mirror and SPR sensors are label-free sensor technologies and thus, in principle, allow for direct and continuous detection.
Jiří Homola
Chapter 8. NIR Dyes for Ammonia and HCI Sensors
Abstract
Dyes with absorption bands in the near infrared region (NIR dyes) were for a long time considered to have only a few practical applications other than as sensitisers in photographic emulsions. The situation has changed dramatically in recent years, with the rapid developments of many fields such as semiconductor laser technology, fibre optic communications, printing, data recording, photography, analytical tools for environmental and process monitoring, sensors techniques and medical diagnostics. This has resulted in research papers, books, review articles and chapters in books, all dedicated to the synthesis and applications of NIR dyes [1–5].
Peter Šimon, Frank Kvasnik
Chapter 9. Piezo-Optical Dosimeters for Occupational and Environmental Monitoring
Abstract
Occupational and environmental monitoring, driven by growing awareness of health hazards and increasingly stringent national and international standards, is becoming focussed on the need for data relating to ever smaller geographical regions, and particularly for personal exposure data. Such personal data are not only the best way to demonstrate compliance with regulations, but also provide the basis for individual exposure/health correlations upon which improved standards can be securely based. The requirements for measurement systems to be used in such local and personal monitoring on a large scale are demanding. They include low cost, small size, reliability, ease of use (preferably by unskilled operators) and the ability to record time-weighted-average exposures over short (e.g. 15 min) and long (e.g. 8 h) periods. Ideally the system should use similar monitoring devices, measured using the same generic low-cost equipment, for a wide range of analytes. Preferably the monitoring device should be capable of measuring exposures to several analytes simultaneously, and the measurement system should include data logging to guarantee proper exposure records. Until recently very few, if any, systems could satisfy these requirements.
Kelly R. Bearman, David C. Blackmore, Timothy J. N. Carter, Florence Colin, Steven A. Ross, John D. Wright
Chapter 10. Interferometric Biosensors for Environmental Pollution Detection
Abstract
One important step in the development of biosensors is the design and fabrication of a highly sensitive physical transducer, that is, a device capable of transforming efficiently a chemical or biological reaction into a measurable signal. There are several physical methods to obtain this transducing signal such as those based on amperometric, potentiometric or acoustic systems. However, transducers that make use of optical principles offer more attractive characteristics such as immunity to electromagnetic interference, possible use in aggressive environments and, in general, a higher sensitivity.
L. M. Lechuga, F. Prieto, B. Sepúlveda
Chapter 11. Fibre Optic Sensors for Humidity Monitoring
Abstract
Humidity is a term that refers to water vapour, i.e. water in gaseous form [1]. It plays an important role in the maintenance of human comfort as well as in many technological applications, agriculture, manufacture of moisture-sensitive products, storage areas, meteorology, automobiles, medical control, and so on, among other activities, some of which are represented in Table 1.
Maria C. Moreno-Bondi, Guillermo Orellana, Maximino Bedoya
Chapter 12. Optical Sensing of pH in Low Ionic Strength Waters
Abstract
The measurement of pH is probably the most commonly performed analytical measurement in a wide range of sciences, including chemistry, biochemistry and environmental studies. This measurement of pH is so important because most chemical reactions are dependent on it in some way. Usually a chemical reaction can only take place within a specific band of pH.
Ben R. Swindlehurst, Ramaier Narayanaswamy
Chapter 13. Environmental and Industrial Optosensing with Tailored Luminescent Ru(II) Polypyridyl Complexes
Abstract
The sensitivity, specificity and versatility of optical methods for chemical determinations have turned spectroscopy into one of the most popular techniques for environmental analysis and process control [1, 2]. In most cases, however, the very same attractive features have led (so far) to expensive instrumentation and/or complex methods compared to, for instance, the well-established electrochemical sensors. Fibre-optic chemical sensors (also known as „optodes“) are bound to overcome such limitations provided they use cost-effective optoelectronics and prove to be specific, sensitive and robust enough to fulfill their analytical tasks in air, water and soil quality monitoring as well as in the industrial environment.
Guillermo Orellana, David García-Fresnadillo
Chapter 14. TIRF Array Biosensor for Environmental Monitoring
Abstract
The field of biosensors has been the subject of an increasing number of books and literature reviews [1–5]. Biosensors consist of two major components: the molecular recognition element and a signal transduction mechanism. The molecular recognition element in biosensor technology takes the form of either a biological molecule (antibodies, enzymes or nucleic acids), a biological system (membranes, tissues or whole cells) or a biomimetic (a species which consists of an active site comparable to that of a naturally produced biomolecule). The increase in sensitivity and specificity, in comparison to chemical sensors, is a direct result of utilizing a biomolecule as the recognition element. The choice of transduction method largely depends on the intrinsic properties of the biomolecule, such as the co-factors found within the structure, and the recognition event measured. Typical transduction techniques used in array biosensor formats include optical and electrochemical; however, mass-mechanical, thermal and acoustic are also possibilities.
Kim E. Sapsford, Frances S. Ligler
Chapter 15. Optical Techniques for Determination and Sensing of Hydrogen Peroxide in Industrial and Environmental Samples
Abstract
Hydrogen peroxide (HP) has undergone somewhat of a rebirth in chemical industry circles over the last decade. The rather glib explanation for such a renaissance is that regulatory forces compelled the chemical industry to reduce, and in some instances to eliminate, environmental pollution. Since industry has learned to employ HP in a safer, more efficient and innovative manner, it can substitute many environmentally hazardous chemicals in an environmentally protective way. The most important applications of HP in industrial processes are summarized in Fig. 1 [1–4].
Hannes Voraberger
Backmatter
Metadaten
Titel
Optical Sensors
verfasst von
Dr. Ramaier Narayanaswamy
Professor Dr. Otto S. Wolfbeis
Copyright-Jahr
2004
Verlag
Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Electronic ISBN
978-3-662-09111-1
Print ISBN
978-3-642-07421-9
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-09111-1