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2021 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

1. Phenomenon of Politically Motivated Justice and Its Relevance for the Rule of Law in the Former USSR

verfasst von : Artem Galushko

Erschienen in: Politically Motivated Justice

Verlag: T.M.C. Asser Press

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Abstract

This chapter provides an overview of the phenomenon of politically motivated justice and a general classification of political trials. The aim of the chapter is to develop a conceptual framework for identifying constitutional practices and roles played by trials against politicians and political parties in established democracies and in transitional states of the former USSR. Several steps are taken to outline the framework of my research. First, the chapter gives a succinct summary of the existing research on politically motivated justice and my contribution to the debate. Second, based on the already existing theories I give my own definition of a political trial in the context of the post-communist transition to the rule of law. Third, it offers a novel research concept I use in the next chapters in order to analyze recent political cases in the selected former Soviet republics and countries of Western Europe. The main goal of this analysis is to demonstrate the subversive character of politicized criminal justice which can override constitutional provisions and undermine democratic transformations in transitional former Soviet republics.

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Nächstes Kapitel Origins of Communist Politically Motivated Criminal Justice

Freedom House 2020.

Posner 2005, p. 76.

Ibid., p. 106.

Kirchheimer 1961, p. 46.

Ibid., p. 25.

Barna and Pető 2015, p. 25.

Ibid.

Laughland 2008, p. 17.

Laughland 2008, p. 16.

Ibid., p. 7.

See the Statute of the Council of Europe, opened for signature 5 May 1949 (entered into force 3 August 1949) https://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/001.htm. Accessed 22 August 2020.

See the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), opened for signature 4 November 1950 (entered into force 3 September 1953) (the Preamble). https://www.hri.org/docs/ECHR50.html. Accessed 22 August 2020.

The WJP Rule of Law Index methodology is available at https://worldjusticeproject.org/methodology. Accessed 22 August 2020.

See the World Justice Project (WJP) What is the Rule of Law? https://worldjusticeproject.org/what-rule-law. Accessed 22 August 2020.

In particular, Austria and Germany scored 0.82 and 0.81 points that correspond to the 7th and 8th places in the 2015 Global Rule of Law ranking respectively. Belarus and Ukraine scored 0.53 and 0.48 points with the correspondent 50th and 70th global ranking, available at https://data.worldjusticeproject.org/. Accessed 22 August 2020.

Schor 2006.

Christenson 1999, p. 29.

Ibid.

Ibid., p. 11.

Laughland 2008, pp. 13–19.

Kirchheimer 1961, p. 46.

Ibid.

Hodos 1987, p. xiii.

Posner 2005, p. 106.

Ibid., p. 107.

Ibid., p. 106.

Christenson 1999, p. 27.

Viola 2017.

Christenson 1999, p. 29.

Trochev 2008.

For instance, Article 125 of the 1936 Constitution guaranteed the “freedom of assembly, including the holding of mass meetings”. The text of the 1936 Constitution in English language is available at https://www.departments.bucknell.edu/russian/const/36cons04.html#chap10. Accessed 25 December 2020. Although Soviet dissidents could occasionally organize peaceful assemblies, they were more often arrested for violating public order protected under Article 190.3 of the RSFSR Criminal Code. In particular, “Article 190-3…was a response to group demonstrations that took place after the [dissidents] Sinyavsky-Daniel trial in support of the defendants.” In: Berman 1972, p. 82.

Andrei Medushevsky (2011) Stalinizm kak model. Obozreniye izdatelskogo proekta ROSSPEN. Istoriya stalinizma, Vestnik Evropy, no. 30. https://magazines.gorky.media/vestnik/2011/30/stalinizm-kak-model-obozrenie-izdatelskogo-proekta-rosspen-istoriya-stalinizma.html. Accessed 24 December 2020.

Mazmanyan 2012, p. 313.

Ibid., p. 319.

Ibid., p. 322.

Argenbright 2002, p. 252.

Mazmanyan 2012, p. 319.

Mazmanyan 2012.

Rubenstein 1980.

Mazmanyan 2012, p. 319.

Solomon 1996, p. 467.

Sakwa 2010, p. 192.

Sakwa 2010, p. 194.

Ibid.

Sadurski 2012, p. 45.

See (1) Ginsburg and Simpser 2013; (2) Barros 2002; (3) Murphy 2006; (4) Myerson 2008; (5) Brown 2011.

Ginsburg and Simpser 2013, p. 1.

Hale 2011.

Ginsburg and Simpser 2013, p. 2.

Przeworski 2013, pp. 21–35.

Ginsburg and Simpser 2013, p. 6.

Rotunda 1998.

Ginsburg and Simpser 2013, p. 3.

Hale 2011.

Ginsburg and Simpser 2013, p. 3.

Root 1989. See also Ginsburg and Simpser 2013.

Hirschman 1992. See also Ginsburg and Simpser 2013.

Ginsburg and Simpser 2013, p. 2.

Hale 2011.

Ginsburg and Simpser 2013, p. 6.

Golove and Hulsebosch 2010.

Ginsburg and Simpser 2013, p. 10.

Ibid.

Hollyer and Rosendorff 2011.

Ginsburg and Simpser 2013, p. 7.

Gravina 2017.

Ginsburg and Simpser 2013, p. 7.

Popov and Uporov 2017.

Ginsburg and Simpser 2013, p. 7.

Law and Versteeg 2013, p. 8.

Ibid.

Ludwikowski 1996.

Ginsburg and Simpser 2013.

Repressii i Konstitutsia SSSR 1936 goda 2002.

Ginsburg and Simpser 2013, p. 8.

Croissant and Kamerling 2013, pp. 105–125.

Ginsburg and Simpser 2013, p. 12.

Schweber 2013.

Hale 2011.

Ginsburg and Simpser 2013, p. 8.

Gravina 2017.

Albertus and Menaldo 2013, pp. 53–83.

Ginsburg and Simpser 2013, p. 9.

Myerson 2008.

Fearon 2011, p. 5.

Simpser 2013. See also Ginsburg and Simpser 2013, p. 5.

Ginsburg and Simpser 2013, p. 13.

Repressii i Konstitutsia SSSR 1936 goda 2002.

Ginsburg and Simpser 2013, p. 13.

Ibid., p. 13.

Hale 2011.

Ginsburg and Simpser 2013, p. 14.

Croissant and Kamerling 2013, pp. 105–125.

Ginsburg and Simpser 2013, p. 14.

Gravina 2017.

Ginsburg and Simpser 2013, p 14.

Ludwikowski 1996.

Helmke and Levitsky 2004.

Ginsburg and Simpser 2013, p. 218.

Fraenkel 1969.

Sharlet 1998.

Sakwa 2013.

“And Russia is not alone…It is part of a surprisingly large group of authoritarian or quasi-authoritarian countries in which the courts mostly function within the law, but in which the political leadership feels entitled to use the courts to serve its goals and turns a blind eye to others with power or influence who are doing the same.” In: Hendley 2017, p. 3. See also Melville and Mironyuk 2016, pp. 132–51.

Hendley 2017, p. 2.

Hale 2011.

Hendley 2017, p. 5.

Trochev 2017.

Shragin and Todd 1977; Hendley 2017, p. 5.

109

Ibid.

110

Ibid., p. 6.

111

Frierson 1986, pp. 526–545. See also Hendley 2017.

112

Hendley 2017, p. 6.

113

Hendley 2017, pp. 7–8.

114

Ibid. See also Feifer 1964 and Farnsworth 1986.

115

Frierson 1986, pp. 526–545.

116

Yanin 1996.

117

Hendley 2017, p. 9. See also Pipes 1986.

118

Ibid., p. 9.

119

Ibid.

120

Solomon 1996, p. 467.

121

Hendley 2017, p. 10.

122

Hendley 2017, p. 13.

123

Kotkin 1997; Hendley 2017, p. 14.

124

Hellbeck 2000; Engelstein and Sandler 2000.

125

Hendley 2017, p. 14.

126

Boym 1995; Hendley 2017, p. 14.

127

Pomerantsev 2014; Hendley 2017, p. 14.

128

Hendley 2017, p. 4.

129

Raz 2009, p. 325.

130

Several authors developed the labelling theories, i.e. (1) Gove 1980; (2) Paternoster and Iovanni 1989; (3) Becker 1963; (4) Braithwaite 1989.

131

Macnaughton-Smith 1968.

132

Ibid., p. 193.

133

Macnaughton-Smith 1968, p. 193.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid., p. 194.

Solomon 2016.

Kovalev 2004.

Solomon 1992, p. 37.

Carothers 1999.

Current Digest of the Post-Soviet Press 2010.

142

Ergun 2010, pp. 67–85.

143

Garfinkel 1956, pp. 420–24.

Ibid., p. 424.

Ibid., p. 421.

Hodos 1987.

Garfinkel 1956, p. 424.

148

Ibid.

149

Garfinkel 1956, p. 422.

150

Ibid.

151

Stiglitz 2003.

152

Merkel and Croissant 2000.

153

Wilson 2005.

154

Ledeneva and Kurkchiyan 2000.

155

Ibid., p. 17.

156

Ledeneva and Kurkchiyan 2000.

157

Gravina 2017.

158

Ledeneva and Kurkchiyan 2000, p. 2.

159

Ledeneva 2006, p. 13.

Ibid.

Popova 2012, p. 10.

Ibid., p. 9.

Ledeneva 2006, p. 13.

Ledeneva 2006.

Ibid., p. 194.

Solomon 1992, p. 37.

Ledeneva 2006, p. 13.

168

Rebitschek 2015.

169

Ibid.

170

Ledeneva 2006, p. 27.

171

Ibid., p. 189.

172

Sakwa 2010.

173

Ledeneva 2006, p. 16.

174

Article 18 ECHR—Limitation on use of restrictions on rights. The violation of this article can be found only in conjunction with another article of the Convention. Moreover, to meet the burden of proof required under Article 18, an applicant must prove “that the whole legal machinery of the respondent State…was ab initio misused, that from the beginning to the end the authorities were acting with bad faith and in blatant disregard of the Convention.” See the ECtHR, the final judgment in the case ‘Khodorkovskiy v. Russia’, 31 May 2011, Case No. 5829/04, p. 64, para 255. https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/sites/eng/pages/search.aspx#{%22appno%22:[%225829/04%22],%22itemid%22:[%22001-104983%22]}. Accessed 22 December 2020.

Sakwa 2010.

Ibid., p. 203.

Ibid., p. 198.

Hendley 2009, p. 201.

179

Sakwa 2010, pp. 199, 202.

180

King et al. 1994.

181

The official statistics of the European Court of Human Rights are available at https://www.echr.coe.int/pages/home.aspx?p=reports&c. Accessed 25 December 2020.

182

OSCE/ODIHR election observation reports. https://www.osce.org/odihr/elections. Accessed 25 December 2020.

183

ENEMO election observation reports available at https://www.enemo.eu/en/home. Accessed 25 December 2020.

184

EU-Ukraine association deal might hit ratification problems if Tymoshenko situation remains unchanged. https://www.kyivpost.com/article/content/ukraine-politics/eu-ukraine-association-deal-might-hit-ratification-112197.html?cn-reloaded=1. Accessed 25 December 2020.

185

According to the Global Competiveness Report 2014–2015, Germany occupies the 15th place with 5.9 points, while Austria is on the 28th place with 5.2 points. https://reports.weforum.org/global-competitiveness-report-2014-2015/rankings/. Accessed 25 December 2020.

186

Mayr 2011.

187

See more about President Wulff’s resignation at https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17072479. Accessed 25 December 2020.

188

According to the 2015 Corruption Perception Index, Ukraine had 130th place with a score of 27 points among 168 countries. https://www.transparency.org/cpi2015. Accessed 25 December 2020.

189

In 2015, Belarus occupied 107th place and scored 32 points, at https://www.transparency.org/cpi2015. Accessed 25 December 2020.

190

See the Recommendation 1441 (2000) on the situation in Belarus. https://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/Xref-XML2HTML-en.asp?fileid=16771&lang=en. Accessed 25 December 2020.

191

Bennett 2012.

192

Since the launch of Freedom House’s annual “Freedom in the World” rating in 1972 Belarus has been consistently rated as “non-free” or “partially free” for its low level of political rights and civil liberties protection. https://www.freedomhouse.org/report-types/freedom-world#.VBcDDxYyKSo. Accessed 25 December 2020.

193

According to the Freedom House, Ukraine had a “free” status from 2005 until 2010. https://www.freedomhouse.org/report-types/freedom-world#.VBcDDxYyKSo. Accessed 25 December 2020.The 2018 ‘Freedom in the World’ Score ranked Ukraine as ‘Partly Free’. https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/freedom-world-2018. Accessed 25 December 2020.

194

Linz 2000; Ezrow and Frantz 2011, p. 2.

195

Huntington 1968; Ezrow and Frantz 2011, p. 2.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Arendt 1973; Ezrow and Frantz 2011, p. 3.

200

Linz 2000; Ezrow and Frantz 2011, p. 4.

201

Schwartz 2006, pp. 175–176.

202

Stelzer et al. 2011, p. 2.

203

Stelzer et al. 2011, p. 1.

204

“Thus, aside from more than 40 amendments inserted into the text of the constitutional document, there exist approximately 600 constitutional provisions ‘floating’ outside the Constitution”. In: Hausmaninger 1998, p. 18.

205

Kelsen’s Constitution was amended in 1929 to strengthen the presidential powers.

206

Zurcher 1934, p. 664.

207

Hausmaninger 1998, p. 8.

208

Liebhart et al. 1991, pp. 375–382.

209

Hausmaninger 1998, p. 9.

210

Ibid.

211

Stelzer et al. 2011, p. 15.

212

Liebhart et al. 1991.

213

Stelzer et al. 2011, p. 32.

214

Walter et al, Bundesverfassungsrecht, n 53, 88f. In: Stelzer et al. 2011, p. 33.

215

Gampl 1971; Stelzer et al. 2011, p. 33.

216

Stelzer et al. 2011, p. 33.

217

Stelzer et al. 2011, p. 33.

218

Liebhart et al. 1991.

219

Cf VfSlg 9648/1983. In: Stelzer et al. 2011, p. 49.

220

Stelzer et al. 2011, p. 15.

221

Stelzer et al. 2011, p. 58.

222

For instance, “[b]y law all employees (civil servants are the exception) are members of the Chamber of Labour and are obliged to pay fees which are deducted from their wages by the employer and transferred to the chamber.” In: Stelzer et al. 2011, p. 56.

223

Schwartz 2006, pp. 175–176.

224

The Social Democratic Party (SPÖ) and the People’s Party (ÖVP).

225

Besides the law on the general rights of citizens, rights relevant for this research could be found in Article 90 of the Constitution, which guarantees principles of criminal procedure, the 1988 federal constitutional law on personal freedom and the Political Parties Act of 1975.

226

See the English version of the Austrian Constitution at https://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/au00000_.html. Accessed 25 December 2020.

227

VfSlg 15373/1988. In: Stelzer et al. 2011, p. 210.

228

See more information about Strasse’s corruption affair at https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-21017914. Accessed 25 December 2020.

229

See the reasoning of the Supreme Court of Austria in Ernst Strasser’s case, available in German at https://www.ris.bka.gv.at/Dokument.wxe?Abfrage=Justiz&Dokumentnummer=JJT_20141013_OGH0002_0170OS00030_14M0000_000. Accessed 25 December 2020.

230

Urteil Gegen Susanne Winter Bestätigt. https://stmv1.orf.at/stories/369117. Accessed 25 December 2020.

231

Former Minister Now a Prison Librarian, 18 November 2014. https://www.thelocal.at/20141118/former-minister-now-a-prison-librarian. Accessed 25 December 2020.

232

See ECtHR, Streletz, Kessler and Krenz v. Germany, 22 March 2001, Case Nos. 34044/96, 35532/97 and 44801/98 (Streletz, Kessler and Krenz 2001), paras 71–73. https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/app/conversion/pdf/?library=ECHR&id=001-59353&filename=001-59353.pdf. Accessed 25 December 2020.

233

In particular, Article 7 § 1 of the Convention…provides: “No one shall be held guilty of any criminal offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute a criminal offence under national or international law at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the criminal offence was committed.” See para 46 of the ECtHR’s judgment in Streletz, Kessler and Krenz 2001.

234

See Streletz, Kessler and Krenz 2001, above n 232 para 87.

235

See Streletz, Kessler and Krenz 2001, above n 232, para 67.

236

Streletz, Kessler and Krenz 2001, the Concurring Opinion by Judge Zupančič.

237

Streletz, Kessler and Krenz 2001, above n 232, p. 13.

238

Streletz, Kessler and Krenz 2001, above n 232.

239

Streletz, Kessler and Krenz 2001, above n 232.

240

Kommers and Miller 2012, p. 57.

241

Lüth Case, 7 BVerfGE 198, 205 (1958). See also Annette Guckelberger, “Die Drittwirkung der Grundrechte,” Juristische Schulung 12 (2003): 1151–57; and Christoph Möllers, “Wandel der Grundrechtsjudikatur: Eine Analyse der Rechtsprechung des Ersten Senats des BVerfG,“Neue Juristische Wochenschrift” 28 (2005): 1973–79.” In: Kommers and Miller 2012, p. 57.

242

Kommers and Miller 2012, p. 58.

243

Heun et al. 2011, p. 6.

244

Thiel 2009, p. 112.

245

The principle of militant democracy is also connected with Article 20 (right to resist—Section 4), Article 79 (Ewigkeitsklausel—Section 3), Article 33 (principles of public service—Section 5) and other constitutional and sub-constitutional provisions.

246

Fromme speaks of an ‘ageing process’ and an ‘erosion’ of the militant democracy. In: Thiel 2009, p. 139.

247

Kommers and Miller 2012, p. 18.

248

Heun et al. 2011, p. 7.

249

Ibid., p. 7.

250

See the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany, available in English at https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_gg/. Accessed 25 December 2020.

251

Krey and Stenger 2008, p. 5.

252

Krey 2002, pp. 41–99.

253

Kommers and Miller 2012, p. 217.

254

Kommers and Miller 2012, p. 218.

255

Heun et al. 2011, p. 119.

256

The Basic Law of Germany at https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_gg/. Accessed 25 December 2020.

257

Ibid.

258

Heun et al. 2011, p. 119.

259

See more information about Wulff’s trial at https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-26365262. Accessed 25 December 2020.

260

Vasagar 2014.

261

Corcoran and Hall 2015.

262

Macias 2015.

263

Lalpychak 1991.

264

See the chronology of the Orange Revolution by Deutsche Welle. https://www.dw.de/chronology-of-the-orange-revolution/a-2804808. Accessed 25 December 2020.

265

See the OSCE/ODIHR Election Observation Mission Final Report on Presidential Election, 31 October, 21 November and 26 December 2004, which showed the scale of electoral fraud during the 2004 presidential campaign. https://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/ukraine/14674. Accessed 25 December 2020.

266

Bredies et al. 2007, pp. 121–122.

267

Ginsburg and Simpser 2013, p. 231.

268

Ibid., p. 231.

269

Ibid., p. 233.

270

In the 2010 presidential elections Yulia Tymoshenko received the support of 45.47% of the voters (11,593,357 votes), while Yanukovytch received 48.95% (12,480,335 votes), see the OSCE/ODIHR Election Observation Mission Final Report. www.osce.org/odihr/elections/ukraine/67844. Accessed 25 December 2020.

271

Mishina 2014.

272

Ibid.

273

Malkin and Raziye 2015.

274

Informal institutions are ‘socially shared rules, usually unwritten, that are created, communicated, and enforced outside of officially sanctioned channels’ and formal institutions are ‘rules and procedures that are created, communicated, and enforced through channels widely accepted as official’. Helmke and Levitsky 2004; Hale 2011; Ginsburg and Simpser 2013, p. 219.

275

Hale 2011; Ginsburg and Simpser 2013, p. 219.

276

Ibid.

277

Ibid.

278

According to Article 80, para 3, “People’s Deputies of Ukraine shall not be held criminally liable, detained or arrested without the consent of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine.” The English version of the Ukrainian Constitution: https://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain/opendocpdf.pdf?reldoc=y&docid=5d63a1ed4. Accessed 25 December 2020.

279

The English version of the Ukrainian Constitution: https://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain/opendocpdf.pdf?reldoc=y&docid=5d63a1ed4. Accessed 25 December 2020.

280

Article 129 of the Constitution.

281

Article 126 of the Constitution says that “a judge shall not be detained or arrested without the consent of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, until a verdict of guilty is rendered by a court”. The English version of the Ukrainian Constitution: https://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain/opendocpdf.pdf?reldoc=y&docid=5d63a1ed4. Accessed 25 December 2020.

282

Article 126 of the Constitution.

283

The Criminal Code of Procedure available in Ukrainian at https://zakon0.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/4651-17. Accessed 25 December 2020.

284

See the new Code of Criminal Procedure, a Ukrainian version is available at https://zakon4.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/4651-17. Accessed 25 December 2020.

285

See recommendations provided by the European Commission for Democracy through Law (the Venice Commission) to Ukraine, available at https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/?country=47&year=all. Accessed 25 December 2020.

286

See the Danish Helsinki Committee for Human Rights, Legal Monitoring in Ukraine II, available at https://khpg.org/en/index.php?id=1313446474. Accessed 25 December 2020.

287

See the European Parliament resolution on Ukraine d.d. 9 June 2011, available at https://www.europarl.europa.eu/document/activities/cont/201106/20110620ATT21953/20110620ATT21953EN.pdf. Accessed 25 December 2020. In particular, criminal cases were opened against the following members of Tymoshenko’s government: Mr. Didenko former First Deputy Chairman of the state oil and gas company “Naftogaz”, Mr. Filipchuk, the former Environment Minister, Ms. Gritsoun, the first deputy chairman of the Treasury, Mr. Ivashchenko, the Acting Minister of Defense, Mr. Korniychuk, First Deputy Minister of Justice, Ms. Kushnir, deputy chief accountant «Naftogaz», Mr. Lutsenko, the former Interior Minister, Mr. Makarenko and the former Head of the State Customs Administration of Ukraine.

288

‘Korniychuk v. Ukraine’ (no. 10042/11), ‘Ivashchenko v. Ukraine’ (no. 41303/11) and ‘Makarenko v. Ukraine’ (no. 622/11).

289

See RFE/RL, “Ukraine’s Jailed Former Interior Minister Sentenced In Second Case,” RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty, August 17, 2012, sec. Ukraine. https://www.rferl.org/content/ukraine-lutsenko/24679808.html. Accessed 25 December 2020.

290

Polityuk and Balmforth 2011.

291

See ECtHR, ‘Tymoshenko v Ukraine’, 30 April 2013, Case No.49872/11; ECtHR, ‘Lutsenko v Ukraine’, 3 July 2012, Case No.6492/11. Furthermore, the Government of Ukraine later recognized that Ms. Tymoshenko’s imprisonment was politically motivated.

292

See Haman Rights Watch Background Information “Republic of Belarus”, available at https://www.hrw.org/reports/1997/belarus/Belarus-03.htm. Accessed 25 December 2020.

293

According to Alex Danilovich, while only Russia and some other former Soviet republics recognized the referendum, “[t]he French Embassy on Minsk, for instance, circulated a statement on behalf of the EU saying the 20th July was the last day of Lukashenka’s legitimate mandate.” In: Danilovich 2006.

294

See Human Rights Watch Background Information “Republic of Belarus”, available at https://www.hrw.org/reports/1997/belarus/Belarus-03.htm. Accessed 25 December 2020.

295

For instance, “[l]imitations on candidates’ ability to campaign were particularly egregious in light of the massive, nationwide, and apparently State-funded campaign in support of a “yes” vote on the referendum.” See the OSCE/ODIHR Election Observation Mission Final Report on Parliamentary Elections of 17 October 2004. https://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/belarus/38658?download=true. Accessed 25 December 2020. See also the European Commission for Democracy through Law (Venice Commission) Opinion no. 314/2004 on the Referendum of 17 October 2004 in Belarus Adopted by the Venice Commission at its 60th Plenary Session (Venice, 8-9 October 2004). https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL-AD(2004)029-e. Accessed 25 December 2020.

296

See the statement made President Alexander Lukashenka during his press conference on 17 October 2014, available in English: https://eng.belta.by/president/view/lukashenko-no-reasons-not-to-run-for-the-presidential-office-if-i-stay-healthy-7516-2014. Accessed 25 December 2020.

297

See the English version of the Constitution of Belarus: https://law.by/main.aspx?guid=3871&p0=V19402875e. Accessed 25 December 2020.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

See the Human Rights Watch UPR Submission to UNHRC on the situation with human rights violations in Belarus, 13 April 2015: https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/04/13/human-rights-watch-upr-submission-unhrc-belarus. Accessed 25 December 2020.

303

Vadzim Smok. “Political Prisoners – No Longer a Sticking Point in Belarus-EU Relations?” Belarus Digest: News and Analytics on Belarusian Politics, Economy, Human Rights and More, 10 June 2015. https://belarusdigest.com/story/political-prisoners-no-longer-a-sticking-point-in-belarus-eu-relations/. Accessed 25 December 2020.

304

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Titel: Phenomenon of Politically Motivated Justice and Its Relevance for the Rule of Law in the Former USSR
verfasst von: Artem Galushko
Verlag: T.M.C. Asser Press
Buch: Politically Motivated Justice
Print ISBN: 978-94-6265-458-7

Electronic ISBN: 978-94-6265-459-4

Copyright-Jahr: 2021
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-459-4_1

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