Proceedings of the FISITA 2012 World Automotive Congress

This paper has integrated various methods such as engine bench test and actual road test, etc. to conduct a feasibility study on the emergency alternative fuel of gasoline by mixed jet fuel and gasoline. The research is divided into three parts. The first step is to mix the jet fuel and gasoline in different proportions and to analysis physicochemical properties. The study shows that both the evaporability and anti-knock quality decrease after mixing jet fuel with gasoline. The second step is to make bench test on the external characteristics and load characteristics with CA20 made use of so as to study the influences of the jet fuel to the dynamic performance and economical efficiency of the engine. The result shows that while the mixing proportion increases, the engine power decreases and the fuel consumption increases gradually. When the proportion reaches 40 %, the engine power drops by 5.3 to 11.7 %, the fuel consumption rises by an average of 3.8 %,The third step is to make a test on actual use for 1,000 km in order to study the adaptability of the jet fuel to the gasoline cars making use of blending fuel with 40 % jet fuel mixed in. The result shows that the lubricating oil dilution and exhaust emissions of engine become worse. All of the above studies show that as for the gasoline engine, the mixed oil can only be used as emergency alternative fuel due to its harm to the engine.

The U.S. Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS2) requires a drastic increases in production of advanced biofuels up to 36 billion gallons over the next decade while corn-based ethanol will be capped at 15 billion gallons. Currently ethanol is the predominant alternative fuel and is widely distributed at 10 vol % blends in gasoline (E10). However, certain properties of ethanol make it less desirable as a blending agent in particular at higher blend levels. Therefore the engine- and vehicle-related properties of longer chain alcohols are evaluated in comparison to gasoline to determine their suitability as blending agents for spark-ignition engine fuels. This analytical study aims at providing comprehensive property data for a range of alcohol isomers with a carbon count up to C8. Relevant physical property data is used to determine the general suitability of longer chain alcohol isomers as blending agents based on factors such as melting point and boiling. Based on initial findings the scope of the study was narrowed down to alcohols in the C2–C6 range. It was determined that the engine- and combustion-relevant information is missing from the literature for a wide range of longer chain isomers. Thus fuel testing for engine-relevant properties such as lower heating value, knock resistance (RON, MON) and Reid Vapour Pressure (RVP) for alcohols up to C6 was performed as part of this study. Data suggests that the melting point of alcohols increases with increasing carbon count and all C7 and C8 isomers exhibit melting points in excess of −40 °C making their use as vehicle fuel questionable. Boiling points increase with increasing carbon count and

n

-structures generally have slightly higher boiling points than their respective

iso

-structures. Latent heat of vaporization decreases with carbon count, the mass-specific value for ethanol is triple that of gasoline, the energy specific ratio increases to a factor of 5. Alcohol fuels generally have a significantly lower RVP than gasoline, RVP decreases with increasing carbon count. Stoichiometric air demand and fuel energy content increase with carbon count. Knock resistance expressed as Research Octane Number (RON) and Motor Octane Number (MON) decreases significantly with increasing carbon count,

iso

-structures show increased knock resistance compared to their respective

n

-structures. This study is limited to analytical results as well as fuel property testing according to ASTM standards. Only properties of neat alcohols are evaluated in comparison to gasoline certification fuel, gasoline blend stock for ethanol blending and E10. The analysis of the reported properties is further focused on spark-ignition engine applications only. Future phases of this project will include the assessment of properties of multi-component blends as well as efficiency, performance and emissions testing on a modern direct-injection engine. While data for a limited number of commonly used alcohols such as ethanol and

iso

-butanol is available in the literature, little or no data is available for a majority of other alcohols and their isomers. In addition, engine-related data published in the past occasionally disregards the significant differences between alcohol isomers of the same chain length. This study offers a comprehensive review of physical properties of alcohols and their common isomers in the C2–C8 range as they relate to in-vehicle use and spark-ignition combustion engine application. Data presented in this paper suggests that higher alcohols have certain physical properties that might be desirable for blending with gasoline. Due to their oxygen content all alcohols have an inherent disadvantage in terms of energy content compared to non-oxygenated fuels. While this disadvantage becomes less pronounced with increasing carbon count, other less desirable properties such as a low RVP and reduced knock resistance become more dominant with longer chain length alcohols. In addition to merely evaluating properties, the selection of promising alcohols and blend levels will ultimately depend on the introduction scenario and target properties.

The general objective of this paper is application of the supercharging method and bioethanol use at the spark ignition engine for improving performance of power and torque, improving engine efficiency, decrease of the emissions level and increases of the engine specific power. The paper brings an important contribution to pollution problems solving in large urban areas, the solution can being easily implemented on spark ignition engines in running, even on the old designs which can be converted to fit the current rules of pollution. A modern method to increase efficiency and specific power of the spark ignition engines is supercharging. Supercharging is common for diesel engines, but for SI engines becomes restrictive because of the main disadvantages represented by abnormal combustion phenomena with knock, exhaust gases temperature increasing, engine thermal and mechanical stresses increasing. By using modern control methods of the combustion, supercharging becomes an efficient method even for SI engine. The theoretical and experimental investigations were performed on a 1.5L aspirated spark ignition engine with MP injection which was supercharged. The supercharged engine was fuelled with gasoline-bioethanol blends. The use of bioethanol at supercharged SI engine assures an efficient cooling effect of the intake air due to its higher heat of vaporization. The intake air cooling effect leads to a volumetric efficiency increasing and the knock appearance risk is reduced. For to achieve of the research objectives the following methodology was used: modelling of the thermo-gas-dynamics processes inside engine cylinder for the theoretical evaluation of engine energetic performance; experimental investigations carrying out on the test bed of the SI engine in two versions: aspirated engine and supercharged engine fuelled with gasoline- bioethanol blends, respectively. For to achieve of the research objectives the following methodology was used: modelling of the thermo-gas-dynamics processes inside engine cylinder for the theoretical evaluation of energetic and pollution performance for aspirated engine and also for of the supercharged engine fuelled with gasoline-bioethanol blends in order to decrease the experimental investigations volume; experimental investigations carrying out on the test bed of the SI engine in two versions: aspirated engine and supercharged engine fuelled with gasoline-bioethanol blends, respectively; the interfacing of the electronic control units for the supercharged spark ignition engine fuelled with gasoline- bioethanol blends. The obtained results of the research are: development of a physic-mathematical model to simulate thermo-gas-dynamics processes inside engine cylinder; determining the bioethanol influences on the engine cylinder filling; determining the bioethanol influences on the supercharged spark-ignition engine combustion process; engine efficiency increasing by up to 10 %, specific power increasing by up to 33 %, pollutant emission levels reduction (was obtained a reduction of 20 % for NO

x

emissions, a 10 % reduction of CO emission and a 13 % reduction of HC emission); establishing the optimal correlation between dosage—electric spark advance—boost pressure—exhaust gases temperature—coefficient of excess air on one hand and functional regime of the engine on the other hand. The abnormal combustion phenomena with knock study in this paper were not developed. As a research novelty is the solution for use of gasoline- bioethanol blends at the supercharging SI engine. Original elements of the research are: application of the supercharging procedure to an aspirated car spark ignition engine; use of gasoline- bioethanol blends as an injected fuel in blower downstream with effect of cooling the compressed air. The SI engine supercharging and use of gasoline- bioethanol blends is a good method to efficiency and power performance increasing. The pollutant emissions level decreases due to the improvement of the combustion processes. Bioethanol can be considered as an efficient anti-knock agent.

For energetically performance improvement and pollution level decreases of diesel engine different methods were applied, as the modifying of the energetically solution, exhaust gases after-treatment and some alternative fuel use (ethanol, methanol, biodiesel, DME, CNG, LPG e.g.) in different fuelling solution as direct injection or intake fuelling. Thought, the available information’s in the trade literature for a complete analyse of alternative fuel diesel engine performances are insufficient. This happens also because of the operating and design particularities of the diesel engines used for experimental researches. In the paper the authors show the results of an theoretically and experimental investigations achieved on a 1.5 L common rail diesel engine dual fuelled with LPG and diesel fuel by diesel-gas method. The diesel-gas method is simple and can be applied with minimal modifications also for the engines in use. Is very difficult to use only LPG at the diesel engine because it has an auto ignition high endurance (CN = −2 to −3), different fuelling methods being use. By diesel-gas method the LPG is injected in the inlet manifold and forms with the air a homogeneous mixture, ignited by a diesel fuel pilot, the combustion being developed thru the homogeneous mixture from the combustion chamber. The general objective of this paper is the reduction of the diesel engine pollutant emissions by LPG use, without affecting the energetically performances. The specific objectives of this research are the establishment of the optimal LPG cycle dose and setup of the diesel engine optimal adjustments for all engine operating regimes.

Natural gas is thought to be one of the most promising alternatives to traditional vehicle fuels. Nowadays, the natural-gas-fueled engine has been realized in both the spark-ignition engine and the compression-ignition engine. Due to the complicated fueling systems in dual fuel mode and the loss in volumetric efficiency in port injection mode, direct injection spark-ignition natural gas engine can be utilized to avoid these defects and its mixture preparation flexibility will improve the fuel economy. The ability to increase the compression ratio can improve the engine performance. In addition, natural gas direct injection combustion can avoid smoke emission from gasoline direct injection combustion. Due to the high injection pressure requirement, special gas injector should be developed to match the injection and flow characteristics. Meanwhile, the arrangement of spark plug and fuel injector is very sensitive to the engine performance and emissions. The injection timings and ignition timings are very important operating parameters and the control of these parameters will determine the mixture concentration distribution in the cylinder and thus the combustion characteristics. Natural gas direct injection combustion can realize high combustion stability with less cycle-by-cycle variation and the lean burn limit can be extended compared with that of the port injection mode, and also the HC emission can be reduced based on appropriate charge stratification and gas flow condition. However, the particle number concentration and NO

x

emission will increase with the improvement of combustion status. Adding hydrogen into direct injection natural gas engine is expected to improve the engine performance and decrease engine emissions. By using the swirl injection system, this engine can realize the increase of brake thermal efficiency and the reduction of the brake NO

x

, HC, CO and CO

2

emission simultaneously, when the hydrogen fraction exceeds 10 %. Nevertheless, further research in spark-ignition system and fuel injection system should be conducted before the product stage of this kind of engine.

In the prospective to reduce greenhouse gas emission from vehicles, the use of hydrogen as fuel represents a possible solution. However, if proper engine running with hydrogen has been widely demonstrated, hydrogen storage onboard of the vehicle is a major problem. A promising solution is storing hydrogen in the form of ammonia that is liquid at roughly 9 bar at environmental temperature and therefore involves relatively small volumes and requires light and low-cost tanks. Moreover, liquid ammonia contains 1.7 times by volume as much hydrogen as liquid hydrogen itself. It is well known that ammonia can be burned directly in I.C. engines, however a combustion promoter is necessary to support combustion especially in the case of high-speed S.I. engines. As a matter of fact, the best (and carbon-free!) promoter is hydrogen, which has very high combustion velocity and wide flammability range, whereas ammonia combustion is characterised by low flame speed, low flame temperature, narrow flammability range (combustion is impossible if mixture is just slightly lean), high ignition energy and high self-ignition temperature. The experimental activity shown in the paper was aimed at determining proper air-ammonia-hydrogen mixture compositions for the actual operating conditions of a twin-cylinder 505 cm

3

S.I. engine. Hydrogen and ammonia are separately injected in the gaseous phase. The experimental results confirm that it is necessary to add hydrogen to air-ammonia mixture to improve ignition and to speed up combustion, with ratios that depend mainly on load and less on engine speed. This activity is correlated with a larger-scale project, founded by Tuscany Region, in which a partnership of research and industry entities has developed a fully-working plug-in hybrid electric vehicle equipped with a range-extending 15 kW IC engine fuelled with hydrogen and ammonia. Hydrogen is obtained from ammonia by means of on-board catalytic reforming.

The turbocharged direct injection lean burn Diesel engine is the most efficient engine now in production for transport applications with full load brake engine thermal efficiencies up to 40–45 % and reduced penalties in brake engine thermal efficiencies reducing the load by the quantity of fuel injected. The secrets of this engine’s performances are the high compression ratio and the lean bulk combustion mostly diffusion controlled in addition to the partial recovery of the exhaust energy to boost the charging efficiency. The major downfalls of this engine are the carbon dioxide emissions and the depletion of fossil fuels using fossil Diesel, the energy security issues of using foreign fossil fuels in general, and finally the difficulty to meet future emission standards for soot, smoke, nitrogen oxides, carbon oxide and unburned hydrocarbons for the intrinsically “dirty” combustion of the fuel injected in liquid state and the lack of maturity the lean after treatment system. Renewable hydrogen is a possible replacement for the future of the Diesel that is free of carbon dioxide and other major emissions, with the only exception of nitric dioxides. In this paper, a Diesel engine is modelled and converted to run hydrogen retaining the same of Diesel full and part load efficiencies. The conversion is obtained by introducing a second direct fuel injector for the hydrogen. The dual fuel engine has slightly better than Diesel fuel efficiencies all over the load range and it may also permit better full load power and torque outputs running closer to stoichiometry. The development of novel injectors permitting multiple injections shaping as in modern Diesel despite the extremely low density of the hydrogen fuel is indicated as the key area of development of these engines.

Since majority of electricity in China is generated from coal and natural gas, the study carried out WTW analyses for battery electric vehicles (BEVs) using China’s various thermal power generation technologies and compare their total energy use and GHG emissions against gasoline or diesel internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), as well as hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). The WTW analyses of BEVs, HEVs and ICEVs were conducted using the GREET (Greenhouse gases, regulated emissions, and energy use in Transportation) model developed by Argonne National Lab combined with a localized database of Chinese domestic data. A 2011 mid-size gasoline car is used as a baseline. Two types of BEV assumed in this study: Common BEVs and High-efficient BEVs. Common BEV pathways will save up to 99 % petrol consumption. However, comparing to that of HEV pathway, WTW energy consumption of all Common BEV pathways will be increased, with a maximum of 71 %. WTW energy consumption of High-efficient BEVs will be 2–29 % less than the WTW energy in the HEV pathway. GHG emissions of Common BEVs depend on differences in power generation technologies. Without CCS, the WTW GHG emissions of Common BEVs using coal-fired electricity are 11–77 % higher than the WTW GHG emissions of the baseline. When USC and IGCC generation technologies are equipped with CCS, the WTW GHG emissions of High-efficient BEVs are 79–83 % less than that of the baseline, and 69–75 % less than the hybrid pathway. This is the first time that a WTW analysis in China at this magnitude was completed with a fully localized fuel-cycle database. Outcomes of the study provide more relevance and accuracy for both the government and industry to develop strategies and policies in China. The model and database developed in this study can be used for analysis both at national and regional levels. This study did not include the energy use and GHG emissions in vehicle manufacturing stage. Although it is a small portion in the analysis, it could provide understanding of the difference in vehicle manufacturing process between EVs and traditional gasoline vehicles. This paper shows that the Common BEVs currently demonstrated are not a silver bullet for attacking energy consumption challenges and GHG emissions. In China context, full HEVs seem more attractive than Common BEVs to deal with energy security and GHG reduction challenge today. In order to achieve GHG reduction targets through vehicle electrification, China must promote CCS technology to help USC and IGCC power plants deliver low-carbon transportation energy on supply side. At the same time, High-efficient BEVs have to be set as the highest priority of automotive technology development.

The main emphasis of this study is to examine the effects of biodiesel thermo-physical properties on the fuel spray development using CFD modelling. A complete set of 12 thermo-physical properties is estimated for PME, SME and CME. The methods employed for this as reported here are generic as the methods are dependent on the chemical compositions and temperature. Sensitivity analysis is performed by integrating the estimated fuel properties into CFD modelling. Variations in spray development such as mass of fuel evaporated and liquid and vapour axial penetration length of biodiesel fuels are found to be different from fossil diesel due to the difference in thermo-physical properties. A total of five biodiesel properties are identified to have profound impacts on fuel spray development, which are liquid density, liquid viscosity, liquid surface tension, vapour pressure and vapour diffusivity. Nevertheless, only liquid surface tension and vapour pressure are the most sensitive fuel properties to the fuel spray development. The work has provided better representation of biodiesel properties, which improve the in-cylinder CFD simulation of reacting spray jet for the fuel.

Downsizing and turbocharging for retaining the maximal power is a common approach to improve the fuel economy of SI internal combustion engines. Due to the additional turbocharger dynamics, small engines suffer from a significant time lag of the torque build-up. The injection of pressurized air into the combustion chamber during the compression phase, also called direct-boost, can recover the driveability. Thus far, expensive and complex fully variable valve-trains have been proposed for the air exchange between the air tank and the combustion chamber. In this paper, a direct-boost system using a camshaft driven valve is designed. An appropriate control strategy is presented. The transient performance of the complete system and the feasibility of the control strategy are demonstrated on a modified 0.75 l turbocharged two-cylinder test bench engine.

The concept of dual fuel Diesel-CNG is well known in heavy duty applications as the high octane number of methane allows converting easily existing CI engines without varying compression ratio, thus reducing adaptation costs. However, with this approach, Diesel fuel substitution ratio is quite limited and the benefits on CO

2

savings and on thermal efficiency are not exploited. The objective of this paper is to highlight experimentally the potential of a different approach for dual fuel Diesel/CNG combustion applied to smaller passenger car engines. The objective of this concept is to maximize CO

2

savings compared to traditional Diesel fuel operation by using the optimal amount of Diesel fuel and optimizing engine efficiency. The study was based on experiments carried out on a CI single cylinder engine modified for allowing dual fuel operation with methane port fuel injection. A first part of the study investigates the behaviour of dual fuel combustion process at different equivalence ratios. Then a second part described how the combustion mode needed to be adapted to the engine load: for example, lean dual fuel with EGR mode and stoichiometric dual fuel mode were addressed depending on the engine operating point. Special attention was given at the results at stoichiometric full load. Indeed, in these conditions, the dual fuel combustion is optimal compared to conventional Diesel operation: less noise, no smoke, faster end of combustion. This study demonstrated that optimizing an engine for dual fuel Diesel-CNG combustion is a challenging task. The control of Diesel fuel autoignition delay is crucial to enhance thermal engine efficiency at low load. THC emissions need to be drastically reduced to comply with stringent emissions standards. Further studies need to be carried out to analyze in more details the combustion process in dual fuel mode.

Recognition of the importance of climate change and energy security has led to interest in electrified vehicles. Electrified vehicles contain substantial amounts of lithium and rare earth elements. There has been concern that the supplies of lithium may not be sufficient to support the development of a large scale global fleet of electric vehicles. We conducted a comprehensive analysis of the global lithium resources and compared it to an assessment of global lithium demand from 2010 to 2100 that assumes rapid and widespread adoption of electrified vehicles. We show that that even with rapid and widespread adoption of electric vehicles powered by lithium-ion batteries lithium resources are sufficient to support demand until at least 2100. The future availability of rare earth elements (REEs) is of concern due to monopolistic supply conditions, environmentally unsustainable mining practices, and rapid demand growth. We evaluated potential future demand scenarios for REEs with a focus on the issue of co-mining. In the absence of efficient reuse and recycling or the development of technologies which use lower amounts of Dy and Nd, following a path consistent with stabilization of atmospheric CO

2

at 450 ppm may lead to an increase in demand of more than 700 and 2,600 % for Nd and Dy, respectively, over the next 25 years.

The configuration and driving principle of Universal Exhaust Gas Oxygen sensor (UEGO) was introduced. Based on the technology of Electronic Pressure Regulator, the system structure of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) Engine is built. Based on the chip MPC 561 and integrate chip CJ125, the UEGO controller which include hardware design of UEGO driver and software design of Air-fuel ratio closed loop are designed. Based model and PID controller, the control strategy of Air-fuel ratio closed loop is discussed. Bench tests show that the operating temperature of UEGO is stable and the response of UEGO driver circuit is rapid and accurate, and error of steady-state is small. This system will reduce the CNG engine’s fuel consumption and emission. Based of the UEGO control system, the intelligent control of engine’s intake rate of air and emission could be achieved.

Research and

/

or Engineering Questions

/

Objective

: The road transport in Europe almost fully depends on fossil fuel. Diversification of the road transport fuels will be a key attribute for road transport in the coming years. Biogas is one of alternative renewable fuels. Actually in Poland biogas is used for generating electricity and heat. In some countries (for example in Sweden), upgraded biogas to natural gas quality (biomethane) is used as a vehicle fuel too. In this chapter estimated biogas production potential in Baltic See Region countries: Germany, Poland and Sweden. It is one of the purposes of European Project Baltic Biogas Bus, realized presently.

Methodology

: Authors of the paper discussed ecological results of biogas (biomethane) application for fuelling city buses. Comparative studies of exhaust emissions from city buses powered by diesel and CNG engine were carried out. The study was conducted under real traffic conditions in southern Polish city Rzeszow. Due to the lack in-service city buses with emission level Euro V in Rzeszow, comparative studies of this type of city buses powered by diesel and CNG engine was conducted in SORT I test. Determined mean values of road emissions in g/km for the city buses operated in Rzeszow. Estimated value of the total road emissions in the case that would be replaced half the fleet of city buses (40 CNG buses and about 35 % of the diesel engine powered buses, meet Euro III emission standard) by the CNG-powered (biomethane) city buses, complying with Euro V (EEV) emission standard.

Results

: It was found, inter alia, that the above-mentioned exchange half the fleet of city buses in Rzeszow for CNG-powered buses that meet Euro V (EEV) emission standard, reduced by about 10 %, first of all, the total CO

2

emissions. The reason is to use during test SORT I the bus with engine of small displacement (downsizing). Also significantly reduced the total emission of CO and NO

x

(54 %) and (44 %), while THC emissions increased (70 %). Road PM emission is, as is the case in vehicles powered by CNG (biomethane), very small. The use of biomethane instead of CNG, as a fully renewable energy source, will reduce CO

2

emissions compared to diesel fuel supply very significantly, taking into account the emission from the well to the wheel. The paper presents the estimated potential of biogas in Baltic See Region countries: Germany, Poland and Sweden, too.

Limitations of this study

: A limitation of the study was, inter alia, lack possibilities of research in real traffic conditions in Rzeszow, exhaust pollutant emissions from city buses with the Euro V level of emissions. These buses are not operated here. The lack Portable Particulate Measurement Device (PPMD) also prevented a more accurate measurement of particulate emissions during tests city buses in Rzeszow.

What does the paper offer that is new in the field in comparison to other works of the author

: Comparative works discussed in this chapter as well as estimates of biogas potential production in above-mentioned the Baltic Sea Region countries, the authors earlier have not conducted.

Conclusion

: The new transport White Paper recommends an ambitions target of 60 % reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from transport up to 2050 in comparison to 1990. In this publication is forecasted that biomethane will be alternative road transport fuel for passenger/light duty cars, heavy duty (city) vehicles and heavy duty (long distance) vehicles in short term period (2020), mid term period (2030) and long term period (2050—only for passenger/light duty cars and heavy duty (city) vehicles). Prospect of application of biogas (biomethane) as a city fuel buses is significant.

VTT has together with the Finnish energy company St1 tested different high-volume ethanol fuel (E85) samples in order to find the optimum composition for this fuel to perform satisfactorily in low ambient temperature driving conditions encountered in Finland quite frequently during the winter season. Altogether seven different fuel compositions were evaluated, with 70–85 % of anhydrous bioethanol, and various different mixes of regular petrol components and some specific species like ETBE, butane, iso-butanol etc. As a reference, new Euro-quality 95E10 petrol with 10 % ethanol was used. Fuel vapour pressure of each sample was adjusted according to test temperatures to match summer or winter condition and ensure effortless start-up. Test results showed that the composition of the fuel had marked influence on emissions. The lower the test temperature was, the more distinctive were the differences. Based on the results, about −15 °C would be the lower limit of operation with “straight” E85 mixture composed ethanol and petrol. On the other hand the more “engineered” fuels performed much better, and allowed starting as low as at −20 to −25 °C. Cold start and driving was possible at equal level of unburned hydrocarbons and other unwanted emissions (aldehydes, ethanol) at an ambient temperature more than 10 °C lower compared to “straight” E85 fuel.

The effective compression ratio reduction by means of late intake valve closing (LIVC) strategy was applied in a di-methyl ether (DME) compression ignition engine to investigate its potential effects on the engine performance and emission at cold start condition. The single injection timing of the DME was varied from the beginning to the end of compression stroke. The DME was injected directly into the cylinder with an injection pressure of 60 MPa. The indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP), heat release rate and combustion duration was investigated at two different intake valve closing (IVC) conditions—base IVC of 28 degree after bottom dead center (ABDC) and LIVC of 43.9 degree ABDC. The other experimental conditions such as injection duration and the environmental temperature remained fixed. The IMEP characteristics with respect to injection timings of two different IVC timing showed similar trend at conventional combustion regime. The IMEP distribution was shifted towards advanced injection timing direction for LIVC condition. In other words, the injection timing of LIVC condition had to be advanced compared to that of base IVC timing in order to produce equal power output. The reduction in the compression ratio had resulted in lower compression pressure and the temperature, so the ignition delay was increased and the overall heat release rate was retarded to retarded crank angle. However, the combustion characteristics in terms of combustion duration and the heat release rate curve did not show great differences at early injection timings (earlier than −30 crank angle degrees ATDC (after top dead center)). The NOx emission was reduced by around 10 % due to the reduced effective compression ratio. The prolonged ignition delay which enhanced the mixture homogeneity was also considered to have contributed on the reduction of NOx emission. The HC and CO emissions of LIVC condition were relatively higher than those of base IVC condition due to the lowered in-cylinder temperature. The smoke formation was low due to the intrinsic properties of DME. The exhaust gas temperature was higher for the LIVC timing condition. The expelled portion of the charge during the compression resulted in lower heat capacity of the working gas. The in-cylinder gas temperature increased more when the same amount of fuel energy input was delivered to the gas with lower heat capacity. It was found that, malfunction of the piezo injector occurred when applying DME fuel with inappropriate setup. It was assumed that the vaporization of the DME might occur inside the injector when the engine coolant temperature increased. The movement of the piezo stack was not able to be translated into injection events due to the gas phase inside the injector. The fuel injector was restored and able to maneuver with the injection events again when the fuel return line was pressured above the vapor pressure. In future, further experiments need to be carried out at fully warmed-up condition in order to reveal its potential of reducing effective compression ratio on improving engine performance.

The application of oxygenated additives seems to be one of more promising modifications of diesel fuels in order to decrease exhaust emissions. The authors have so far tested many oxygenates, from different chemical families, but as sole fuel components. Generally speaking, these oxygenates produced favorable but different changes in exhaust emissions. The objective of this study was to investigate whether the positive effect on emissions could be maximized by the application of packages of multiple oxygenated compounds. Four different oxygenated additive packages were tested. Each package contained a combination of 2 synthetic oxygenates, which represented different chemical groups, namely: glycol ethers, maleates and carbonates. The packages were evaluated as fuel additives at a concentration of 10 % v/v in a Euro 5 diesel fuel. The New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) was selected as a representative test for this study. All the oxygenate packages were additionally tested using the US Federal Test Procedure 75 (FTP-75). This cycle was carried out in order to determine the influence of cycle conditions on oxygenated fuels’ effectiveness as regards reductions in exhaust emissions. The tests were conducted on a Euro 4 passenger car equipped with a direct injection (common rail) turbocharged diesel engine. During the tests, mass emissions of CO, HC, NO

x

, PM and CO

2

were measured. The influence of individual oxygenates on CO, NO

x

and PM emissions is roughly additive when these oxygenates are applied together (i.e. as a package of additives). There is no such regularity for HC emissions. The research showed that the application of oxygenated additives generally produces a significant reduction in PM emissions and a slight increase in NO

x

emissions. An increase in CO and HC emissions was observed when maleates and carbonates were used as sole oxygenates. This increase was significantly lower when the oxygenates mentioned above were applied in a package with glycol ethers. The influence of oxygenated additive packages was different over the NEDC and FTP-75 cycles. Generally, the packages produced more favorable changes in exhaust emissions over the FTP-75 cycle, which is more transient and dynamic (stronger accelerations). The reduction in PM emissions was higher over the FTP-75 cycle. In the case of NO

x

emissions, these were higher by a factor of dozen or so for oxygenated fuels than for neat diesel fuel over the NEDC, whereas over the FTP-75 they was slightly lower for oxygenated fuels than for diesel fuel. In the case of CO and HC emissions, such a clear-cut relationship between the type of driving cycle and emissions changes was not observed. Regardless of test conditions, no significant influence of oxygenated additive packages on CO

2

emissions was noted. The application of oxygenated diesel fuels containing packages of oxygenated compounds caused a significant reduction in PM and a small change in NO

x

emissions, so it produced favorable changes in the PM/NO

x

emissions trade-off. Favorable changes in PM/NO

x

emissions produced by the application of oxygenated additive packages were, however, comparable to these achieved with use of the most effective individual oxygenates.

NG engine which was popularized in the past two decades has better performance of emission and less operating cost comparing with engines consuming traditional fuel. To meet stricter emission regulations, some outer purifier methods (e.g. SCR) are applied but at the expense of increasing cost. Some research illustrated “dual-diluted” combustion mode, which is achieved by the fresh air dilution and recirculated exhaust gas (EGR) dilution, a better “inter purifier” method. In this paper, Propose and develop a model based EGR control strategy with an in-cylinder lambda model to realize “dual-diluted” combustion mode. The results show that the exhaust dilution rate and fresh intake air dilution rate can be calculated accurately. Meanwhile, through these two models, the “duel-diluted” combustion mode is realized.

In this paper, A heavy-duty NG engine and its electronic controlled system were developed. combustion stability, in–cylinder flow, burning rate and hazardous emissions were further investigated to develop optimized combustion control technologies for efficient and clean combustion on this engine. The electronic controlled system and NG supply system were designed in the condition of maintaining the universal parts of based diesel engine as many as possible. The combustion and emissions of NG engine were investigated by means of experiment and numerical simulation with the commercial 3D-CFD-tool STAR-CD. The in-cylinder flow and burning rate of NG engine were studied. Special-shaped combustion chamber was used to change the flow state. The results show that the engine thermal efficiency increases by 2 % compared with the original engine while using the cross-type rapid combustion chamber under 1450r/min,100 % load operating condition. Effect of three kinds of dilution methods on combustion and emissions performance from lean burn NG engine was investigated. These dilution methods include air dilution, stoichiometric combustion with EGR, and double dilution (extra air and EGR). The results show that double dilution method is superior to other methods no matter considering from fuel economy or NOx emissions.

A hybrid electric system with two sets of planetary gear and two electric motors has been developed for city bus, which can provide series/parallel driving mode for HEVs. The power train assembly of this system integrates functions of power coupling, automatic transmission and auto clutch. It’s control system was also designed to provide good fuel economy and traction performance with fuel consumption improved by more than 30 %. The new system can meet requirements of HEVs and Plug-in HEVs, which provides a new choice for china automotive industry with satisfied cost and performance.

Under the current technical circumstances, the high cost of the electrical vehicle is the biggest problem of the mass marketization. So how to reduce the cost on the promise that the dynamic performance requirements be meet becomes more and more important. The purpose of this study is to develop a methodology to optimize an Extended-Range Electric Vehicle’s parameters taking minimum drivetrain cost and the best fuel economy as objectives. Design parameters, including electric motor peak power, engine rated power, and battery capacity are reasonably set. The simulation result illustrates that a set of vehicle dynamic performance constraints are met, in the same time the production cost is reduced and the fuel economy is improved. Further study should optimize the control strategy variables, too. Thus, the fuel economy can be optimized in a further extent. What’s new of this study in the field is taking production cost as one of the objectives to optimize the powertrain parameters. According to the ADVISOR simulation result, the fuel economy have been significantly improved and production cost has been reduced.

The fuzzy logic inference system was developed to identify driving intention. The membership functions and rules of the fuzzy logic inference system were built by using mathematical statistics and neural network. The vehicle model was built based on a series–parallel hybrid vehicle using Cruise software. The driving intention inference system was designed in Simulink. The simulation is done based on Cruise and Simulink. The simulation results prove that the fuzzy inference system can identify driving intentions excellently and the control strategy based on driving intentions can help to reduce more fuel consumption.

In this paper, PMSM (permanent magnet synchronous motor) control technologies combined with HEV (Hybrid Electric Vehicle) application features are developed, which aim at FAW-TMH (Twin Motor Hybrid) system for B70HEV. The technologies are based on FOC (Field Oriented Control) theory and include multiple advanced control functions such as MTPA (Maximum Torque per Amperes) control with decoupling and anti-windup PI controller, PTB (Peak Torque Boost) control, high voltage utilization PWM modulation, deadtime compensation, DTC and map based deep field weakening control and so on. Those control technologies can meet the hybrid electric vehicle’s performance requirement under different working conditions. What’s more, the proposed deadtime compensation, DTC and map based field weakening control technologies are new in the e-motor controls field. Bench test and road test indicate that the developed PMSM control strategy meets the performance and reliability requirements of B70HEV.

Because the power train system of Extended-Range Electric Vehicle is a complicated multi-domain engineering system, a unified approach named Bond Graph has been used. The important drive components, especially battery, electric machine, wheel and Range Extender unit are modeled. The complex interactions among the components are taken into account in a complete multi-domain model. Once the power train system models have been developed, the dynamic behaviour of E-REVs is simulated under selected various driving cycles using rule-based energy management strategy. As important conclusion, the bond graph method has once again demonstrated its great potential for modeling technical systems with multi-domain physical fields. According to the simulation results, the significant benefits of E-REVs for the fuel reduction, emissions output and energy efficiency are proved.

The hybrid powertrain is a promising concept to contribute to achieve future CO

2

-targets. This paper describes a method to improve future automotive powertrains efficiently in real world driving conditions. Beside the optimization of the internal combustion engine and the electric components, the operating strategy of the hybrid powertrain is of particular importance to minimize the vehicles fuel consumption. A combination of start/stop operation, downspeeding, load-point shifting and pure electric driving can provide substantial fuel savings compared to conventional powertrains. However, in addition to the fuel consumption the more and more stringent future emission legislation must be taken into the account when optimizing the operating strategy. A fast light-off of the catalytic converters and a control of the converter temperatures during pure electric driving must be achieved. Therefore, numerous parameters have to be optimized simultaneously to realize the best solution for the hybrid powertrain. A numerical optimization approach was used to define the operating strategies efficiently for the mentioned goals. The results of this optimization were compared to the fuel consumption and the exhaust emissions of the conventional powertrain. The potential of a further strategy optimisation could be evaluated. Generally, it could be shown that long phases of electric driving combined with aggressive load point shifting to balance the battery’s state of charge are most favorable in terms of efficiency. The phases of electric driving are additionally limited by the temperature drop of the catalysts and the lack of pollutant conversion after restart. This is a new and innovative approach to develop electrified powertrains efficiently. Finally it can be stated, that the numerical optimization method proved to be a powerful tool to support the development process of hybrid powertrains with numerous degrees of freedom.

The Control Strategy of ISG Hybrid Electric Vehicle is developed, which is based on model with reference of AUTOSAR standard, the system model is at the centre of the development process, from requirements definition and system design to implementation and testing. What the experiment proved is that the development of control strategy is of high efficiency and reliability, with the performance met the design requirements, and development time and cost reduced, meanwhile the portability and maintainability of system improved.

This paper explains the structure, characteristics, and performance of the newly developed P314 hybrid transaxle, which was developed for front-wheel drive (FWD) 2.5-liter vehicles. Lower mechanical and electrical losses and lighter weight than the conventional P311 were achieved by enhancing the motor cooling performance, improving the flow of the oil, and optimizing the shape of the casing. This transaxle is also applicable to a wider vehicle weight range and achieves better fuel economy while reducing cost.

Research/Engineering Question

: Micro-Hybrid applications like start/stop system and intelligent alternator control are well known and widely implemented to achieve first improvements regarding the reduction of CO

2

emission. Key items for their realization are the 12 V lead acid battery monitoring and power system stabilization approaches as well as optimizations of aerodynamics, enhanced warm cranking procedures and energy efficient electrification of power loads like electrical power steering systems. To achieve the upcoming CO

2

reduction targets in 2020 further optimization potentials have to be elaborated and have to be introduced.

Results

/

Conclusion

: Additional improvements can be achieved by extrapolated techniques like enhanced start/stop application, which means stop–start at vehicle speed of 30 km/h, and idle cruising/sailing. But these functionalities have a significant impact onto the stability and reliability of the power system based on the previous experiences with the common stop–start function. They can only be realized within a low voltage power system by the introduction of new enhanced energy storage solutions like additional batteries, double-layer capacitors or lithium-ion cells in combination with power electronics. By the prevention of high voltage implementations these solutions show a promising benefit to cost ratio in comparison to Full-Hybrid solutions. If further efficient functionalities like high power regenerative braking and electrical creeping are intended to implement, additional electrical measures have to be introduced. For instance a dual low voltage power system architecture with a system voltages lower than 60 V can be used to fulfill the requested energy and power capability of the power system for these corresponding vehicle functions. Double layer capacitors are suitable for high power regenerative braking due to their high charge acceptance and high current discharge capability. If functions with high energy demand like electrical creeping should be applied, then solutions using lithium ion cells are much more sufficient. Full-Hybrid and pure electric driven vehicles offer the maximum of CO

2

reduction potential. Here, nickel-metal-hydride or lithium ion batteries are used to reach the balance between power and high energy demand.

Methodology/Limitation

: Within this chapter the impact of these new vehicle applications onto the energy storage and their integration into the power system using power electronics is discussed from a supplier perspective based on actual pre- and series development projects.

This study is to propose a new control strategy to improve dynamic performance of the traction motor in the electric vehicle (EV) which is under command of considerable dynamic controls. Desired electromagnetic torque is derived from the torque feedforward loop. By introducing the indirect vector control, the q-axis current is acquired with the known motor torque and d-axis current. Voltage feedforward loop is to achieve d- and q-axis voltages for SVPWM generation. Considering control precision, PID adjustors in small ranges are also included for dynamic compensation of feedforward loops. With consideration of various EV operation conditions, the Matlab-based simulation and DSP-based experimental setup are deployed to verify the proposed strategy. Various curves illustrate the outstanding response ability of the proposed strategy, compared to the conventional three-loop method.

For a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) equipped with CVT (Continuously variable transmission), it’s an important question in developing vehicle energy management that how to make engine, motor and CVT coordinate well to maximize the overall efficiency of the hybrid system. According to this problem, an energy optimization strategy for a CVT mild HEV is proposed which takes the maximum system efficiency as optimization objective and vehicle speed, accelerator pedal degree and battery SOC as state variables while the motor torque and CVT ratio as control variables. Based on a comprehensive consideration of the driver’s actual operation, driving demand and efficiencies of key components, the strategy proposed in this paper realizes the overall efficiency’s maximization and gets the optimal output torque of motor and the CVT target ratio under different driving conditions. The energy management strategy based on this optimization is tested by a self-established forward simulation model, showing that compared with the proto vehicle the equivalent 100 km fuel consumption is reduced by 26.4 % under NEDC driving cycle.

In recent years, various energy sources have been investigated as replacements for traditional automotive fossil fuels to reduce CO2 emissions, respond to instabilities of the supply of fossil fuels, and to reduce emissions of air pollutants in urban areas. Toyota Motor Corporation considers the PHEV, which can use electricity efficiently, to be the most practical solution to these issues. Toyota already began sales of the Prius Plug-in Hybrid in 2012 in the U.S., Europe and Japan, and also will introduce to the Chinese market. This is the first PHEV to be mass-produced by Toyota Motor Corporation. Prior to this, in December 2009, Toyota introduced 650 PHEVs through lease programs for verification testing in China, the U.S., Europe and Japan. The system of mass-production vehicle specifications has major improvements in response to the results of this verification testing. As a result, EV range was increased with a smaller battery, and the system weight has been drastically reduced. Additionally, the vehicle clears the most stringent emissions regulations in different regions, and was granted Enhanced AT-PZEV credit in California. This paper discusses the development of the plug-in hybrid system for this mass-produced vehicle.

Research and

/

or Engineering Questions

/

Objective

: Most research of the power-split hybrid vehicle haven’t taken the efficiency of the planetary-gear system which changes according to the gear ratio into account and merely consider the power lose based on the mechanical-electric energy conversion and determined the control strategy. The objective of the study is to achieve optimized management and cooperative control of the power flow by building an exact model of hybrid power system and analyzing the efficiency.

Methodology

: The mechanical loss of the Dual-mode coupling mechanism planetary system is caused by gear mesh, clutch friction, oil seal and bearings. The loss has intimated connection with the parameters of the system status. This chapter has studied the relationship between system parameters and transmission efficiency of planetary transmission in coupling system. It also has built the efficiency model of the planetary transmission in coupling system and amend the model by test. Build a comprehensive efficiency model of the hybrid vehicle, by considering the power loss of engine, battery, motor and other components and mechanical loss of planetary transmission in coupling system, and this model reflects the distribution of the system power flow. So we could achieve the optimized control of system power flow under the requirement of the driver.

Results

: The planetary transmission efficiency and hybrid vehicle comprehensive efficiency has been described by the functions of system power flow distribution status. By considering of the equivalence relations between battery pack charge/discharge and engine fuel consumption, this chapter has built the optimized model of system power flow control.

Limitations of this study

: An important limitation of the current study is the calculating of the drag losses of the clutch/brake at very high rotating speed, and the designing of the test bench which should has the ability to measured more than one motor power accurately. So specialize tests of component and corresponding testing equipments are needed.

What does the chapter offer that is new in the field including in comparison to other work by the authors

: The modelling of planetary transmission efficiency of power coupling system in the dual-mode hybrid system is new.

Conclusions

: By studying the system efficiency not only revealing how the system works of the system but also guiding the optimize management of the system power flow.

As demands for a reduction in CO2 emissions and higher vehicle fuel efficiency are escalating on a global scale, needs not only for passenger hybrid vehicles but also for commercial hybrid vehicles are arising accordingly. In 2008, we developed Automatic Transmission (AT) system with Hino Motors which was compatible with hybrid vehicle [

1

], therefore, this time, we developed a new hybrid front module containing a front clutch mechanism, which is intended to further optimize the hybrid AT system and capable of disconnecting the hybrid vehicle motor and the engine, to achieve better compatibility with the AT system.

Due to the shock caused by unstable transmission of power in the mode-switch process and the difficulty of obtaining engine torque in real time, a dynamic coordinated control strategy for mode-switch of hybrid electric vehicle based on the effect control is put forward. The control strategy of engine torque is designed, which is used to reduce the abrupt changes of engine torque by limiting its changing slope. Motor torque control strategy based on motor speed closed-loop is proposed, motor speed taken as feedback control variable is easy to be measured accurately in real time. It avoids the problem of inaccuracy engine torque estimation. A simulation model is built on the platform of Matlab/Simulink and AEMSim. The results show that the dynamic coordinated control strategy can make the fluctuation of motor speed and vehicle speed decreased and effectively improve the vehicle’s ride comfort.

Main topics are the development and build-up of an 18 ton hybrid truck with a parallel hybrid drive train. With this truck it is possible to drive up to 3 km in the pure electric driving mode. In this R&D Project, a hybrid truck has been developed with an integrated motor generator (IMG) including a clutch system for pure electric driving, a Li-Ion power battery, electrified traction voltage auxiliaries (steering pump, air compressor and climate compressor) and the cooling system for the new power components. The first part of the chapter shows a detailed system layout of the hybrid truck that has been developed.

Chapter 2

shows the developed simulation model which is used for the dimensioning and for detailed simulations of hybrid drive trains. A special focus has been laid upon the operation strategy of hybrid commercial vehicles. To gain high market shares for hybrid trucks, the total cost of ownership will be the main driver, so the development of affordable hybrid components (battery, traction system, auxiliaries) with high efficiency and the development of optimized overall hybrid vehicles systems has to be the short term objective.

To promote in the academic environment the ways for reducing global warming produced by the Sport Utility Vehicles, the grand hamster—electric way 4WD concept has developed within the University of Pitesti. It is a Plug-in Hybrid Vehicle powered in electric/hybrid modes by a Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO

4

) traction battery technology, 205 V, 12 kWh. The concept is developed on the Dacia DUSTER crossover vehicle, 4 × 2 series version by implementing an electric propulsion system in the rear axle. The objective of this project is to realize a 4WD environmentally-friendly vehicle maintaining the leisure of driving the vehicle in the city using the continuously variable transmission (CVT) in the electric mode and the diesel motorization outside of the town in the thermal mode. The architecture is parallel type and E-4WD with a standard diesel engine 1,5 dCi FAP, 79 kW(107 bhp) and 6 speed manual gearbox in the front, and an asynchronous electric motor 31 kW (41 bhp) coupled with the reduction and differential gearbox unit at the rear. The traction battery is monitored by a battery monitor and charged by an embarked charger. The charging and discharging of the battery is authorized by the Battery Management System. The paper presents the firsts performances of the vehicle on the road tests.

Dynamic and electric parameters of HEVs and EVs such as acceleration, regenerative braking and battery charging/discharging depend on the battery system performance. Excessive or uneven temperature rise in a module or pack of battery reduces the life cycle significantly. Therefore, improving the battery thermal management system (BTMS) is very important for reliability and cost of vehicle. The objective of this paper is to design an air cooled battery thermal management system using thermoelectric to maintains the temperature of battery in appropriate range at stressful and abuse conditions. An air flow with fans, heat sinks, fins and thermoelectrics is used for battery thermal management of hybrid electric bus to improve temperature uniformity and reduce maximum cell temperature. A battery pack consists of 12 smaller packs containing 14 porch cells with series design is selected for this study. This Li-ion battery pack specifically designed for the hybrid electric bus produced by Vehicle, Fuel and Environments Research Institute (VFERI). A detailed three-dimensional thermal model of designed battery pack has been developed using the fundamental heat transfer principles and CFD (computational fluid dynamics) analysis tools to predict the temperature distributions in cells and packs. The air flow for the battery thermal management of porch Li-ion cells is numerically analyzed using a three-dimensional CFD model. The numerical results indicate that the temperature of battery maintain below 35 °C while keeping the cell temperature difference below 5 °C during high charge/discharge rates and ambient temperature more than 40 °C. In other studies though using the air as the heat transfer medium for BTMS may be simpler, cheaper and smaller than heat transfer by liquid, but it is not recommended because it is not as effective as heat transfer by liquid. In this paper, a new method is presented that improves air cooling thermal management with help of thermoelectric. It is more effective than usual air cooling thermal management. Thermal modeling of a Li-ion battery air cooling pack suitable for hybrid electric bus using thermoelectric shows that such an approach can keep the cell temperature in the pack below the upper safety limit (35 °C) in high-rate discharge rates and under ambient temperatures higher than 40 °C.

With the development of new energy vehicle technology, smart and high efficiency driving motors are needed, now permanent magnet machine is the most suitable type. Mostly the IPM rotor structure is used for it can take full advantage of reluctance torque so as to fulfil weakened flux control, however, the magnet bridge’s shape in rotor lamination will cause remarkable influence to motor’s performance. In this chapter, one Integrated Motor and Generator (IMG) type machine is taken as an example to investigate rotor magnet bridge and its yoke thickness to motor’s performance impact, with the FEM (Finite Element Method) electromagnetic simulation, the reasonable rotor structure was explored, and the final designed EM’s electromechanical performance can satisfy system’s requirement.

The UK Technology Strategy Board (TSB) sponsored HyBoost project was a collaborative research programme to develop an ultra efficient optimised gasoline engine concept with “Intelligent Electrification”. The basis of the concept was use of a highly downsized 1.0 L boosted engine in conjunction with relatively low cost synergistic ‘12+X’ Volt electrical management system and electrical supercharger technologies to deliver better value CO

2

reduction than a full hybrid vehicle. Project targets of 99 g/km CO

2

as measured over the European Drive Cycle (EDC) in a standard 2011 Ford Focus whilst maintaining the same performance and driveability attributes as a 2009 production 2.0 L version of the car were achieved, and a potential route through to <85 g/km CO

2

identified. Ricardo was supported by a consortium consisting of Ford, Controlled Power Technologies, Valeo, the European Advanced Lead Acid Battery Consortium, Imperial College London and the UK TSB.

With the targets of low carbon emissions and optimization of energy consumption, FAW developed the Twin Motor Hybrid system (FAW-TMH™), which has obtained patents in both China and the United States. The system includes the hybrid dedicated engine, a traction motor (TM), a clutch, an automatic manual transmission (AMT), a BSG, a new battery system and other key assemblies. This hybrid powertrain can be extended to plug-in system easily. This configuration has all the full hybrid functions such as Start-Stop, pure electric driving and regenerative brake. As the application of this system, FAW has developed B70HEV and B50PHEV. In NEDC, B70HEV can achieve a reduction of 35.2 % in fuel consumption, which can meet the European “130 g CO

2

/km” emissions regulations in 2012. B50PHEV can achieve a reduction of more than 60 % in fuel consumption in NEDC.

As a result of an intensive use of the electric power in the last third of the 20th century the new significant factor of negative impact on the person and environment was created—electromagnetic pollution. With development of scientific and technical progress there are new sources of electromagnetic radiation that lead to increase of the scale of their influence, growth of intensity and the time of exposure of electromagnetic fields to the person. Considering the risks connected with electromagnetic pollution of urbanized territories, it is necessary to carry out an appraisal of the electromagnetic field and a contribution to an electromagnetic background of all widespread sources, including car.

The dual-mode power-split-type hybrid transmission system is a typical multi-input and -output system, hence the efficiency analysis is complicated compared with conventional vehicles. In this chapter, a comprehensive efficiency model of the dual-mode hybrid vehicle is built on the basis of power loss analysis, including the engine fuel conversion power loss, the charge/discharge power loss of the battery pack and the coupling mechanism power losses. The exact model of the coupling system is investigated considering the motor loss, gear spin loss, clutch/brake loss, bearing loss and sealing loss. Besides, a control strategy is further developed to achieve the optimal system efficiency by selecting the engine operation point and the power of the battery pack. The simulation results show that the new strategy can greatly improve the fuel economy of the vehicles.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of protuberance on the power transmission properties of the Continuously Variable Transmissions (CVT) with dry hybrid V-belt under several conditions of speed ratio. The power transmission properties were examined in three conditions of speed ratio (i = 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0) by using three type belts in which the height of the protuberance was 0, 0.06 and 0.09 mm, respectively. Both pulley thrusts on driving and driven pulley and contraction force were measured by using load cells. Rotating speeds of the both pulley shafts and the torque to the both pulleys were measured by speed pickups and torque meters, respectively. To evaluate of the power transmitting properties of the CVT, thrust ratio, conversion ratio, transmitting efficiency and slip ratio were investigated. It was found that the highest maximum thrust ratio, conversion ratio, transmitting efficiency and allowable driving input torque were obtained when protuberant tension member was used with 0.09 mm of height, respectively. In any condition of speed ratio, applying the protuberance on the side sliding surfaces was effective to improve the power transmission properties.

In this paper, two strategies based on the use of roadway traffic prediction data to optimize the energy consumption of Hybrid Electric Vehicles are compared. For both strategies, predictive traffic data is sent to the supervisory controller in order to adjust the Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (ECMS). In the first approach, the predicted driving profile is divided into time horizons of equal length and the optimal control input is calculated for each of them. In the second approach, the control input is periodically recalculated, thus, adapting to changes in the predicted driving profile. While both strategies reduced energy consumption, the second approach showed its superiority with a maximum improvement of 6.85 %.

MAHLE has developed a dedicated Range Extender engine which has been focussed on meeting the requirements for a compact-class range-extended electric vehicle. In order to enable further development and refinement of the Range Extender system (e.g. NVH attributes of the engine), the module has now been installed into a demonstration vehicle. A current production gasoline fuelled compact-class car was used as a donor vehicle and converted into a range-extended electric vehicle (REEV). The all-electric driveline specification has been developed to meet the performance criteria set for the demonstrator, matching the acceleration and maximum speed capabilities of the conventional donor vehicle. Also, a target electric only range has enabled the battery pack capacity to be specified. The resulting vehicle is intended to reflect likely, near to market, steps to further the wider adoption of electric vehicles in the compact-class passenger car segment. This study gives details of the REEV vehicle developed and the Range Extender system integration. Additionally, the proposed operating strategy for the engine is described and simulation results show the fuel efficiency anticipated over the current legislative drive-cycle.

Online simulations are utilized to reduce time and cost in developing and optimizing the performance of plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) and electric vehicles (EV) systems. One of the most important factors in an online simulation is the accuracy of the model. In particular, a model of a battery should accurately reflect the properties of the actual battery. However, precise dynamic modelling of a high-capacity battery system, which significantly affects the performance of a PHEV, is difficult because of its nonlinear electrochemical characteristics. In this study, a dynamic model of a high-capacity battery cell for a PHEV is developed by the extraction of the equivalent impedance parameters using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Based on the extracted parameters, a battery cell model is implemented using MATLAB/Simulink, and charging/discharging profiles are executed for comparative verification.

Serial-hybrid-powertrains in extended-range electric vehicles (E-REV) pose different requirements to internal combustion engines (ICE) than conventional vehicles. In E-REVs ICEs are not used for propulsion but for battery charging and cabin heating. This work deals with the design of ICEs in serial-hybrid-powertrains. It considers different operating strategies as well as the dimensioning of the electric components of the powertrain and the thermal management. Therefore, a longitudinal dynamic model was developed using GT-SUITE including the ICE and the thermal management. The engine was operated on a test bench in parallel to create the necessary maps for the numerical investigations. Due to the high amount of parameters that can be optimized when determining the operating strategies and dimensioning the components, by a numerical optimization method that was developed and customized for this problem. The numerical investigations showed that for higher vehicle speeds the direct propulsion of the ICE is more efficient while for lower speeds the operation of the ICE as a generator is the more efficient strategy. Additionally, the influence of the ambient temperature on the efficiency was taken into account. At low ambient temperatures it is necessary to heat up the driver’s cabin electrically. Using a thermal numerical model it was possible to show the dependency on the energy consumption, the component dimensioning and the configuration of the operation strategies. The most favourable powertrain setup and the most efficient operating strategies were achieved by using the described numerical optimization method. The new and comprehensive approach was to consider the entire vehicle including mechanical components, thermal components and operating strategies in the numerical model setup and the holistic optimization of them using self-developed numerical optimization software.

The range of electric vehicles is limited due to the battery capacity. As a result of high prices for batteries as well as a rising weight using additional battery modules, both the feasible level of electric recuperation and the efficiency of the system have to be as high as possible. Therefore, the Technische Universität München has developed and designed a new torque-vectoring system for electrical powertrains. Besides the main driving machine a second smaller superimposing electric motor combined with a superimposing gear makes it possible to recuperate brake energy for all driving situations. Especially in curves with high lateral forces the new system reaches higher recuperation values than comparable systems. The system size of the superimposing machine is only about 5 % of the vehicle’s driving power. Due to the continuously variable power delivery there are no slipping losses, i. e. such as those of wet clutches. The overall losses in the presented powertrain are only 10 % of the losses compared to existing systems. Gearbox efficiency results, which were calculated with a simulative model, are presented for straight-ahead driving and cornering. Varying deceleration values for these driving conditions, efficiency values are illustrated for different recuperation levels with or without the superimposing machine being activated.

The scope of this study is to optimize the component sizing of a fuel cell powered PHEV (PHEV-FC), using a genetic algorithm (GA) to optimize component cost for a typical urban taxi fleet usage. A simplified heuristic methodology is the first approach for the PHEV design. Cost functions for the components are estimated as well as specific power functions to perform the vehicle component sizing and cost evaluation. The used GA aims to optimize the cost of the designed vehicle and evaluate performance constrains (maximum speed and acceleration, electric range, overall performance) using an external tool, a vehicle simulator software ADVISOR, automated with the algorithm (

in loop

). A real measured driving cycle and official New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) are used for the vehicle simulations. Different fuel cells, motor and battery and a range of battery module number are the input data for the GA optimization regarding component selection. The initialization of the heuristic method relays on the vehicle specific power (VSP) methodology, namely on maximum power requirements of the specified driving cycle. It assumes efficiencies and main characteristics) of the components to perform an iterative calculation, followed by a trial and error evaluation. The GA is capable to tune the component sizing to the respective performance requirements. It can be seen that the cost may not have a direct relation with the consumption, since that different components lead to different vehicle weight and performance. An important limitation of the current methodology is that the vehicle optimization is fully dependent on the assigned driving cycle and performance constrains. Input data and GA parameter tuning deserves exhaustive work to achieve more precise results. The heuristic method although very fast to achieve results lacks sensitiveness regarding the proposed constraints to the design, since the evaluation process is made after the design. The GA allows adjusting better solutions to the requirements of the driving cycle and constraints, and independently selecting the fuel cell, motor and battery. Both heuristic and GA method results are compared with a conventional diesel taxi vehicle (ICEV). The designed PHEV-FC with the lowest cost and compliant with the requirements resulted from the GA method and was powered by a 24 kW fuel cell, a 130 kW motor, and a 251, 17 kWh Li-ion battery pack. Using the real Lisbon downtown driving cycle, the optimized PHEV-FC achieved a 2.1 MJ/km daily taxi service, which represents less 18 % of energy consumption than the ICEV taxi. The best results produced for the PHEV design regarding the real driving cycle have 67 % higher energy consumption and are 80 % more costly than NEDC, since NEDC it is a less demanding cycle.

In order to analyse and improve the energy efficiency of electric vehicles (EVs), an efficient, effective and accurate simulation model of vehicular systems is established from the energy flow point of view. The proposed model includes sub-systems of energy storage, energy consumption, energy transmission, vehicle dynamics, driver model, and vehicle controller. A case study, based on Nissan Leaf, is implemented for validation of the proposed model. Finally, the energy flow and consumption distributions are demonstrated. Due to its openness and expansibility, the model can be used for design optimization of EVs and the results obtained would provide a guidance to design an EV in a more systematic and optimal way.

To find a proper method in the limited interior space to propel the vehicle by a power-assisted way and to improve the vehicle performance, a catamaran car concept is introduced in this paper to apply power-assisted drive on rear wheels and to achieve the energy sharing. The model is constructed in the GT-suit simulation condition to perform the simulation and the results are also analyzed. The results indicate that acceleration and gradeability can be significantly improved by utilizing catamaran car method to apply power-assisted drive on rear wheels, thereby verifying the feasibility of this design solution.

This paper aims at studying the relationship between Electric Vehicle and its performance in the perspective of technology and economy. First, GT software is used to simulate vehicle performance. Second, cost is analyzed by technology condition and price, and then the relationship between performance and cost is discussed. Performance and cost are mutually affected by battery energy. In the aspect of performance, Vehicle performance increases initially and then decreases with increase of battery energy and there is a turning point. With respect to cost analysis, cost keeps increasing with cumulating of battery energy. Namely, cost is positively proportional to battery energy. There are two intersection points between performance and cost. In designing vehicles, the location of performance and cost properties should be restricted inside the region formed by those two intersection points as much as possible.

The control unit of a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle is taken as a test object in this paper. Based on HIL test definition of functional decomposition and establishment of test cases, the representative and typical test points are selected from a large number of test points to achieve a reasonable design of test solution by introducing the orthogonal principle in combination with a vehicle control strategy. The real-time HIL test platform is constructed based on test definition. Furthermore, the TESIS DYNAware simulation model is integrated to simulate the controlled object and environment, and carry out a whole performance test of vehicle control unit. The test results indicate that adoption of orthogonal design method can significantly reduce the number of test cases and improve test efficiency under the condition of full coverage of validation tests.

A rapid control prototyping design for hybrid power system has been proposed based on the real-time simulation test bench which constituted by double xPC Target system. A Topology structure is analyzed that the ultracapacitors are connected with power battery packs parallel after a bidirectional DC/DC converter. The ultracapacitor, power battery and the hybrid power system are modelled. For the electric vehicle (EV) application, the control strategy for the hybrid power system is proposed. The simulation results of the hybrid power system and battery-only power system is analyzed under the UDDS (Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule) with the selective topology structure of hybrid power system. It was suggested that the ultracapacitor can significantly improve the efficiency of the hybrid power system, and the energy consumption of the power battery may decrease 8.97 %. Furthermore, the ultracapacitor can efficiency balance the output of the power battery, and the cycle life of the power battery is significantly improve through optimizing its working range.

While there are many test items to secure a vehicle’s reliability, this study reviews the test method for Thermal-shock Test, one of climatic tests to evaluate the damage caused by thermal expansion coefficient differences of parts by rapid temperature change, and proposes more appropriate test method for test performance evaluation. The testing for automobile electronic parts is divided into two categories for reliability and for stability, and is varied in wide range. In this study, Thermal-shock Test, which performed to acquire durability life, one of the important factors of the automobile electronic part tests, is analyzed. The current Thermal-shock Test is conducted with higher than 500 cycles in case of automobile interior electronic parts, or higher than 1,000 cycles in case of the parts in the engine room or of the exterior or special area of automobile. And, according to installation area, the tests are performed in high temperature (75–115 °C) and in low temperature (−40 °C). And, test profile time is to evaluate battery’s performance reduction by changing temperature for total one hour (high temperature, 30 min and low temperature 30 min). During and after the evaluation, any abnormality, such as venting, battery enclosure rupture, fire, or explosion, shouldn’t be occurred to the tested battery. Also, the internal resistance should satisfy the preset range. Therefore, with Thermal-shock Standard Test, the Battery Pack for PHEV in development process is to be evaluated. And, the evaluation result is analyzed to verify if the evaluation can be performed with trust as the evaluation to other automobile electronic parts followed by a proposal of detailed test measure. Firstly the internal structure of the developed battery pack for PHEV is analyzed. Then, through the test method recently applied, the test procedure to measure the temperature distribution of battery pack is to be established. And, by analyzing the international thermal-shock test standard and conducting the test on the proposed profile, the detailed test method is drawn. After the verification process for the proposed test method, the reliability is to be secured.

ERTRAC predictions currently show EV growing their market share to around 20 % of new vehicles sold by 2030, to meet these demands NVH engineers will be challenged to define and refine the sound, comfort and feel of tomorrow’s automobile without hindering the drive for more efficient vehicles. Often though, improvements in efficiency such as those gained by weight reduction bring extra challenges to the NVH engineer as their concerns become secondary to performance and efficiency gains. This paper aims to show how NVH activities can positively aid efficiency gains for electric vehicles with examples of some recent simulation and test work carried out on electric vehicles. NVH Engineering takes on a new focus for Electric Vehicles with the removal of broadband internal combustion engine (ICE) noise, significant differences are found in the noise spectrum when comparing an Electric Vehicle (EV) with an ICE vehicle. EV noise is characterised by tonal harmonic noise related to the number of poles on the electric motor. Results from vehicle benchmarking tests together with analysis highlight the relative quietness in the low/mid frequency range (<1 kHz). An example of how this can offer opportunities for weight reduction is shown using NVH simulation tools to demonstrate that early application of NVH engineering can aid weight reduction while maintaining acceptable interior sound levels and quality. The choice of electric motor is often dictated by technical, financial and logistical limitations, increasingly in the automotive industry is researching alternative motor configurations that do not permanent magnets such as switched reluctance motors which do not contain magnetic materials which are expected to become increasingly expensive and scarce as demand grows. The drawback of SRM is increased noise and control complexity. A methodology using a combined 1D multi-physics approach and 3D finite element analysis approach is shown with initial results that can help optimize the mechanical design and controls of the SRM in parallel, maximising power without impairing the acoustic performance. Finally with a quieter powertrain a challenge facing vehicle manufacturers is how to alert vulnerable road users to the presence or movement of the electric vehicle, pedestrian warning systems are seen as the best solution but how can you optimize these systems, Fast Multipole BEM tools can help simulate the propagation so sound and the effect of the environment around it, results for such a study are presented to demonstrate its potential. This paper highlights the evolving NVH demands from the emergence of electric vehicles and demonstrates how NVH analysis methodologies can be applied to optimize key vehicle NVH attributes. Analysis of NVH benchmarking data for electric and ICE powered vehicles show the potential needs for NVH engineering focus on electric vehicles. Results of vibration and acoustic simulation tools applied to EV body weight, electric motor performance and warning sound are shown to demonstrate where NVH analysis can aid electric vehicle development without hindering the search for efficiency gains.

Range Extended Electric Vehicle (REEV) can extend driving range of EV by engine when battery SOC reaches its lower limit. But usual REEV powertrain is serial, fuel consumption of which is high in high speed driving condition when vehicle works in Range Extended mode. With the problem, a new concept powertrain for REEV is presented in this paper. It has better driving condition adaption, as it can work in serial or in parallel according to driving condition. Firstly, the configuration of new Range-Extended Electric Vehicle powertrain is proposed, which contains engine, BSG motor, clutch, traction motor and two-speed DCT. In Range Extended mode, it can work in serial or parallel. Two-speed DCT can adjust operating points of engine and traction motor. In addition, engine, BSG motor and traction motor can be downsized due to the use of clutch and DCT. Secondly, component parameters are designed according to vehicle requirements. Thirdly, control strategy of REEV based on the new concept powertrain is designed. Moreover, detail design for an A0 car is presented, and advantages of the new concept powertrain are evaluated by simulation. Evaluated by simulation, the new concept powertrain can meet requirements of Range Extended Electric Vehicle, and fuel economy of new concept powertrain is good in various driving cycles when vehicle works in Range Extended mode.

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) technology combining the merits of Battery electric vehicle (BEV) and Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), has the potential to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and petroleum consumption in the transportation sector. However, the cost-benefit of PHEVs mainly determined by battery technology, optimal powertrain design, and vehicle kilometers daily traveled and charging habits. Targeting to cost-benefit, the optimal design method was presented, taking battery cycle life Vs DOD data, driving data, battery performance data into consideration. The method provided optimal vehicle designs to realize minimum life cycle cost, and maximum petroleum consumption under different scenarios. For A-segment equivalent PHEV (similar to a F3DM), under Shanghai urban driving conditions, it can be find that while PHEVs with present traction battery technology, 30 km AER was most life cycle cost-effective to obtain maximum petroleum displacement based on Shanghai driving data. Large capacity battery lead to petroleum displacement not so much as cost increased. At China electricity price off peak, Li-ion battery pack costs must fall below ¥2.0/Wh to be cost competitive with equivalent internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEs).

In order to meet the increasingly strict regulations of CO

2

emissions limits, gasoline hybrid technology for “95 g CO

2

/km” emissions regulation was analyzed in this paper. Study of energy-efficient technology shows that full hybrid technology, combined with lower rolling resistance and reducing drag technology is still difficult to achieve “95 g CO

2

/km” emissions target. Plug-in hybrid technology is a better way to achieve this target. In this paper, aimed at “95 g CO

2

/km” emissions target, appropriate motor and battery were chosen, the control strategy under CD mode was studied to develop a more reasonable powertrain system, and finally the purchase cost and daily using cost of vehicle were analyzed.