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Erschienen in:
Power, Knowledge, and Space: A Geographical Introduction Kapitel lesen Erstes Kapitel lesen

2015 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

2. Relations Between Knowledge and Power: An Overview of Research Questions and Concepts

verfasst von : Peter Meusburger

Erschienen in: Geographies of Knowledge and Power

Verlag: Springer Netherlands

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Abstract

This chapter explores the multiple linkages between knowledge, civil society, governance, and democracy. Broader questions about relations between knowledge and freedom are placed in the context of whether these linkages are codetermined by an enabling of the knowledgeability of modern actors. Emphasis is placed on the growing opportunities for reflexive cooperation in civil society organizations, for social movements, and for an increasing influence on democratic regimes by growing segments of society. The specific aim of this chapter is more modest. Access to knowledge and the command thereof are at the core of its inquiry. Both access to knowledge and its command are stratified. Three barriers to access to knowledge are examined and questions raised about whether expertise and civil society can be reconciled, whether reconciling civil society and knowledge can be conceived of as a private good, and, finally, whether the social sciences and humanities are a source of enabling knowledge.

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Vorheriges Kapitel Power, Knowledge, and Space: A Geographical Introduction
Nächstes Kapitel Enabling Knowledge
Fußnoten
1
I borrow this phrase from Kammler (<CitationRef CitationID="CR103" >2008</Citation Ref>, p. 305). It means that the exercise of power uses and generates knowledge and, conversely, that knowledge coincides with certain effects of power.
 
2
This chapter’s general references to knowledge are solely to categories and agents of knowledge that are capable of enhancing or jeopardizing power. Of course, there are categories of knowledge that have little or nothing to do with power. The Aristotelian concepts of episteme, techne, and doxa also apply in this context, but their highly dissimilar use by various authors today (see Löbl, <CitationRef CitationID="CR133" >1997</Citation Ref>, <CitationRef CitationID="CR134" >2003</Citation Ref>) could lead to misunderstandings.
 
3
According to Russell (<CitationRef CitationID="CR192" >1958</Citation Ref>), civilization is “a manner of life due to the combination of knowledge and forethought” (p. 159).
 
4
Augurs were concerned with interpreting the movements and cries of birds (Barton, <CitationRef CitationID="CR14" >1994</Citation Ref>, p. 33).
 
5
The haruspices interpreted omens and the entrails of sacrificial animals (Barton, <CitationRef CitationID="CR14" >1994</Citation Ref>, p. 34).
 
6
Frederick II became King of Sicily (1198), King of the Germans (1211–1212), and Holy Roman Emperor (1220–1250).
 
7
Unless otherwise specified, the English translations of quotations in this chapter are my own in collaboration with D. Antal.
 
8
To Max Weber legitimate authority was institutionalized power (see also Popitz, <CitationRef CitationID="CR179" >1992</Citation Ref>, p. 232) and was the indispensable sociological category as opposed to power because it was, as he stated, objectively and verifiably linked to effects rooted in order (Maurer, <CitationRef CitationID="CR145" >2012</Citation Ref>, p. 361). Many authors use the terms power and authority synonymously. Others discriminate between them: “Whereas power is thought of as something mobile, dynamic, and malleable, authority [Foucault] is conceived of as something stable, irreversible, rigid… . In relations involving authority the mobility and dynamics observable in power relations are thus more or less completely expunged. Authority is thereby reified, rigidified power” (Kneer, <CitationRef CitationID="CR115" >2012</Citation Ref>, p. 279).
 
9
Quanquam … omnis scientia potentiam in externa quoque augeat … , est tamen alius ejus usus … , ipsa scilicet perfectio mentis.
 
10
“Bureaucratic administration means fundamentally the exercise of control on the basis of knowledge” (Weber, 1922/<CitationRef CitationID="CR222" >1964</Citation Ref>, p. 339).
 
11
This work, first published in October 1786 in the Berlinische Monatsschrift (pp. 304–330), became the “most significant document in the critical philosophy of orientation” (Stegmaier, <CitationRef CitationID="CR209" >2008</Citation Ref>, p. 79). It is where Kant introduced the term orientation for “the moral and practical use of reason” (Stegmaier, <CitationRef CitationID="CR210" >1992</Citation Ref>, p. 298).
 
12
In this context the term means religious, ideological, or cultural orientation knowledge, that is, an orientation to values rather than an orientation in space or to facts. Unfortunately, the broad, common use of the word orientation can lead to misunderstandings. I retain the term orientation knowledge because the alternatives—redemption knowledge, salvation knowledge, revealed knowledge, spiritual knowledge, religious knowledge, religiosity, and invisible religion (Luckmann, <CitationRef CitationID="CR135" >1967</Citation Ref>)—are too narrow.
 
13
Aller Glaube ist nun ein subjektiv zureichendes, objektiv aber mit Bewußtsein unzureichendes Fürwahrhalten; also wird er dem Wissen entgegengesetzt. Retrieved October 7, 2014, from tenth paragraph at http://​www.​zeno.​org/​Philosophie/​M/​Kant,+Immanuel/​Was+hei%C3%9Ft%3A+sich+im+Denke​n+orientieren
 
14
To Schleiermacher, all knowledge formation was orientation: “Accordingly, all knowledge needs orientation, and no knowledge comes about without it” (Stegmaier, <CitationRef CitationID="CR209" >2008</Citation Ref>, p. 107).
 
15
To Scheler (<CitationRef CitationID="CR195" >1926</Citation Ref>), salvation knowledge, the only noninstrumental variety of knowledge, had the highest value. This view was a notable misunderstanding, however, for religions and ideologies are by no means noninstrumental from the perspective of the person wielding power. On the contrary, they can be among its foremost sources. For further discussion of this concept, see Meusburger (<CitationRef CitationID="CR152" >2008</Citation Ref>, especially pp. 58, 71, 73; <CitationRef CitationID="CR153" >2011</Citation Ref>, pp. 54–57).
 
16
In past publications I, too, have used the term symbolic knowledge (Meusburger, <CitationRef CitationID="CR155" >2005</Citation Ref>, <CitationRef CitationID="CR157" >2007b</Citation Ref>). It can lead to confusion, however, because some authors take it to mean knowledge about the meaning of symbols.
 
17
“One may have power over another or others, and that sort of power is indeed relational … But he may have power to do or accomplish something all by himself, and that power is not relational at all; it may involve other people if what he has power to do is a social or political action, but it need not” (Pitkin, <CitationRef CitationID="CR177" >1972</Citation Ref>, p. 277).
 
18
Drawing on Allen (<CitationRef CitationID="CR4" >1999</Citation Ref>), Göhler (<CitationRef CitationID="CR73" >2011</Citation Ref>) speaks also of power with (p. 234), which is understood to mean an ability not just to take action together but to stand shoulder to shoulder in the process.
 
20
Potestas and auctoritas were differentiated as two forms of power by Cicero’s time (106–43 B.C.) in the Latin-speaking realm (Kobusch & Oeing-Hanhoff, <CitationRef CitationID="CR118" >1980</Citation Ref>, p. 586).
 
21
Schütz and Luckmann (<CitationRef CitationID="CR200" >1973</Citation Ref>, pp. 22–34) distinguish between various provinces of reality, namely, those of the everyday life-world, fantasy worlds, and the dream world. “The life-world is something to be mastered according to my particular interests. I project my own plans into the life-world, and it resists the realization of my goals, in terms of which some things become feasible for me and others do not” (p. 15). Only in the everyday life-world do materiality and physicality operate and technologies and competition play a role. Only there can a lead in knowledge develop into economic or political significance.
 
22
The fact that this chapter focuses on competitive societies confronted with an uncertain environment does not mean that possible achievements of collaboration, friendship, or altruism are underestimated. Knowledge and power gained from collaboration and partnership may be even more significant for addressing certain issues. The question is in which scale (family, firm, state, global institutions) and under which preconditions such noncompetitive environments will be feasible.
 
23
The importance of a lead in information was already underlined by the Chinese military general and philosopher Sun Tzu (544-496 B.C.) in his work The Art of War: “The general who wins a battle makes many calculations in his temple ere the battle is fought. The general who loses the battle makes but a few calculations beforehand. Thus do many calculations lead to victory and few calculations to defeat.” Retrieved November 24, 2013, from http://​www.​military-quotes.​com/​Sun-Tzu.​htm. Some modern scholars believe that The Art of War contains not only the thoughts of its original author but also commentary and clarifications by later military theorists.
 
24
Even well-founded knowledge is not always the “truth” but rather knowledge acquired according to the prevailing rules by means of approved measurement methods. In other words, it can turn out differently depending on what measurement methods are applied (see Cicourel, <CitationRef CitationID="CR44" >1974</Citation Ref>). Views may differ on the rules and the measurement methods to be used. The submission of results, however, makes it possible to judge how reliable a given knowledge was and whether it was justifiably relied on.
 
25
For Nietzsche, all will to power is interpretation. The stronger person determines the moral standards and the criteria of truth and defines the worldview. The weaker person is subjected to outside perspectives and values (Speth, <CitationRef CitationID="CR206" >1997</Citation Ref>, pp. 274, 277).
 
26
This understanding of power comes from Paul’s letter to the Romans, “Let every person be subject to the governing authorities; for there is no authority except from God, and those authorities that exist have been instituted by God” (Romans 13:1, New Revised Standard Version).
 
27
The famous Chinese military general and philosopher Sun Tzu (544–496 B.C.) stated, “All warfare is based on deception.” Retrieved November 24, 2013, from http://​www.​military-quotes.​com/​Sun-Tzu.​htm
 
28
Application of the term is predicated on a spatial dissemination of particular character traits, so the territory’s residents—individually screened or unscreened—can be labeled with certain traits.
 
29
Persons not wishing to accept the sovereign’s decision were granted a grace period during which they could resettle in a region allowing them to practice the religion of their own choice. The Electors residing in Heidelberg switched their religious affiliation seven times between 1556 and 1716 (Baar-Cantoni & Wolgast, <CitationRef CitationID="CR10" >2012</Citation Ref>, p. 67). On each of these occasions, the professors at Heidelberg University had to choose between changing their confession or leaving the university.
 
30
Some of the thoughts and arguments in this section have been published in other works of mine as well (Meusburger, <CitationRef CitationID="CR155" >2005</Citation Ref>, <CitationRef CitationID="CR156" >2007a</Citation Ref>, <CitationRef CitationID="CR157" >2007b</Citation Ref>, <CitationRef CitationID="CR153" >2011</Citation Ref>).
 
31
The culture of memory is also manipulated through graphic representations and placement of monuments. Manipulation through pictures is even more effective than that through words (for a thorough discussion see vol. 4 of this series, Cultural Memories).
 
32
“The objective of the DA-Notice System is to prevent inadvertent public disclosure of information that would compromise UK military and intelligence operations and methods, or put at risk the safety of those involved in such operations, or lead to attacks that would damage the critical national infrastructure and/or endanger lives” (DA-Notice System, <CitationRef CitationID="CR49" >n.d.</Citation Ref>, par. 1).
 
33
In most cases it is not the host of the talk-show who selects his or her guests, but anonymous members of the editorial staff of the TV channel.
 
34
Baghel and Nüsser (<CitationRef CitationID="CR13" >2010</Citation Ref>) offer a striking illustration of the subjectivity of expertise: “The guidelines proposed in the World Commission on Dams (WCD) final report were vehemently rejected by several Asian governments, and dam building has continued apace in most Asian countries. This reaction is in line with the simplistic dam debate, where dam critics offer laundry lists of socioeconomic and environmental costs, and dam proponents highlight the benefits while underestimating associated costs. Whereas the WCD sought to evaluate dams in terms of ‘costs and benefits’, this approach is self-defeating due to the very subjectivity of such measurements” (p. 231).
 
35
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
 
36
“Citizen science … is scientific research conducted, in whole or in part, by amateur or nonprofessional scientists” (“Citizen science,” <CitationRef CitationID="CR45" >2014</Citation Ref>). It has been defined as “the systematic collection and analysis of data; development of technology; testing of natural phenomena; and the dissemination of these activities by researchers on a primarily avocational basis” (“Finalizing,” <CitationRef CitationID="CR62" >2011</Citation Ref>). Citizen scientists often partner with professional scientists to achieve common goals. Large volunteer networks often allow scientists to carry out tasks that would be too expensive or time-consuming by other means.
 
37
It is unlikely that laypersons are permitted to perform surgery.
 
38
“In Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels, when Lemuel Gulliver arrived in May 1707 in the land of Laputa on the continent of Balnibarbi, the king of Laputa received his guest at the royal palace. Concerned about how his power would be perceived by a foreigner, the king proudly showed Gulliver his loyal scientists, astronomers, and musicians, all of whom were dedicated to enlightened governance. Gulliver, however, was a traveler with a keen eye. He observed how the netherland population of Lindalino, part of the kingdom of Laputa, dwelled below a floating island which the king could order his scientists to manipulate. The scientists could use magnetic levitation to move the floating island, thus preventing sunlight and rain from getting to the population of Lindalino. If insurrection broke out, the sovereign could demand that Lindalino be bombarded with rocks, or destroy Lindalino by lowering the floating island on top of the population” (Seegel, <CitationRef CitationID="CR201" >2012</Citation Ref>, p. 1).
 
39
During the Paris Peace Conference after World War I, de Martonne was an adviser to French Minister of Foreign Affairs André Tardieu and French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau.
 
40
He declared national census data on the mother tongue of the Romanian population as unreliable and “corrected” them by data about the religious denomination of the population. In addition he applied a number of cartographic techniques and tricks that masked the real distribution of minorities. The census data on the mother tongue of the population in Transylvania are still retrievable at http://​www.​kia.​hu/​konyvtar/​erdely/​erd2002.​htm. Kocsis (<CitationRef CitationID="CR120" >1994</Citation Ref>, <CitationRef CitationID="CR119" >2007</Citation Ref>), Kocsis and Kocsisné (<CitationRef CitationID="CR121" >1998</Citation Ref>), and others describe the distribution of minorities that is based on mother tongue and the background of the ethnic conflicts in the Carpathian Basin. Jordan (<CitationRef CitationID="CR102" >2010</Citation Ref>) gives a general overview about methods used to manipulate maps showing the distribution of ethnic awareness.
 
41
To aggrandize the legitimacy and influence of the House of Habsburg and its Austrian lands, Rudolph IV (1339–1365) ordered the creation of a forged document called the Privilegium Majus (“the greater privilege”) in the winter of 1358–1359. It consisted of five faked deeds, some of which had supposedly been issued by Julius Caesar and Nero to the historic Roman province called regnum Noricum, whose borders ran a course similar to those of modern Austria. The Privilegium Majus was modeled on the Privilegium Minus (a grant of special privileges and a reduction of obligations toward the empire, issued by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa when Austria was raised to a duchy). The original of the latter document, however, “got lost” at the same time, and the Privilegium Majus was identified as a fake even by contemporaries, such as the Italian scholar Francesco Petrarch.
 
42
Kuran (<CitationRef CitationID="CR122" >1995</Citation Ref>) takes preference falsification to mean “the act of misrepresenting one’s genuine wants under perceived social pressure” (p. 3).
 
43
The architecture of an organization is defined as an ordered arrangement of different functions (workplaces with different tasks). It can be described by the hierarchical arrangement of units fulfilling line and staff functions; by the distribution of expertise, responsibilities, and control functions; by the centralization or decentralization of decision-making; by the channels of formal communication; and many other attributes (Meusburger, <CitationRef CitationID="CR157" >2007b</Citation Ref>, p. 119).
 
44
Poverty, crime, income inequalities, and gender inequalities purportedly did not exist in communist countries. The relevant data were not collected or not published (Meusburger, <CitationRef CitationID="CR150" >1997</Citation Ref>).
 
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Metadaten
Titel
Relations Between Knowledge and Power: An Overview of Research Questions and Concepts
verfasst von
Peter Meusburger
Copyright-Jahr
2015
Verlag
Springer Netherlands
Buch
Geographies of Knowledge and Power

Print ISBN: 978-94-017-9959-1

Electronic ISBN: 978-94-017-9960-7

Copyright-Jahr: 2015

DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9960-7_2