Restoration of Forests

Foliar damage to trees by air pollution in Central and Eastern Europe has been a major scientific and political issue. Emissions of toxic gases such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides can have wide-ranging effects on local and regional vegetation that can be compounded by other environmental stresses to plant growth. Since uptake and physiological effects of these gases on tree leaves are largely mediated by stornata, surrogate methods for estimating pollutant conductances into leaves and forest canopies may lead to risk assessments for major vegetation types that can then be used in regional planning. Management options to ameliorate or mitigate air pollutant damage to forests and losses in productivity are likely to be more difficult to widely implement than on-the-stack emissions abatement. Informed management and policy decisions regarding Central and Eastern European forests are dependent on the development of quantitative tools and models for risk assessment of the effects of atmospheric pollutants on ecosystem health and productivity.

One of the main problems in Czech forestry is its decline due to the effect of air pollution. Although it is a problem that is quite common in Europe, the damage has different history and characteristics in this part of the continent.

Ukrainian forested lands cover 10 million hectares and about 14.3% of the total territory. Ukrainian forests are considered mostly as a valuable environment forming factor and thus having a limited value for industrial utilization. Now Ukrainian forests are affected by environmental pollution, intensive forestry practice and recreational uses. Almost a third of the forested areas is radio-actively contaminated due to the Chernobyl accident. Therefore, there is a strong need to provide forest monitoring in Ukraine and since 1989 Ukraine has participated in the International Co-operative Programme on Assessment and Monitoring of Air Pollution Effects on Forests (ICP-Forests).

The first (extensive) level of monitoring is designed for evaluation of the dynamics and distribution of forest damage in the country. The main estimation criteria are defoliation and discoloration of forest stands. From 1990 until 1995 the mean defoliation increased from 10% to 23%, part of moderately and severely defoliated trees increased from 4% to 27%. Recent decrease of air pollution concentrations, however, has not been reflected by the lowering grades of the defoliation or discoloration. It may be explained by the accumulative effect of air pollutants. Defoliation and discoloration can also be affected by other factors, e.g. pests, fungi or extreme weather conditions.

Actually, the actual source of changes in forests state is difficult to indicate without extensive level of monitoring. In summer 1995 forest monitoring activities in Ukraine were extended under US Forest Health Monitoring Programme (FHM) that provides additional information to extensive monitoring data. Research on climate change impacts on Ukrainian forests was carried out under the US Country Studies Program for forest vulnerability and adaptations assessment. Estimation of a potential distribution of forests, distribution of main tree species, and species biodiversity was accomplished with use of a computer Geographic Information System (GIS). Methodology used in the project is based on a forest types classification developed in Ukraine. It is valuable for interpretation of forest monitoring data, evaluation of forests dynamic under environmental impacts including global climate change.

This paper discusses the effect of air pollution on forest trees and biological aspects of the environment optimization in Belarus. Data on gas-tolerance and air pollution accumulation capabilities of some trees species are presented. Some recommendations for creating green plantations in areas with air pollution by SO₂, H₂S, CS₂, NO₂, NH₃ are given. This study indicated that vegetation in Belarus is greatly endangered by sulfurous and nitrogenous air pollutants. Sulfur accumulation in the Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) needles from 0.11 to 0.17% negatively impacts on fundamental physiological processes, primery photosynthetical reactions, pigment and protein pools concentrations, chemical elements N : S : P ratios. These changes are factors inthe forest ecosystems destabilization in Belarus.

This paper analyzes the conditions of Romanian forests (extrapolated to Eastern European countries) in connection with forest accessibility (density of forest road network) and with possible extraction technologies, based on forest management regulations in force vis-a-vis the situation of industrialized countries. Deliberations during NATO -ARW WORKSHOP from July 1996 will provide new contributions for better understanding and solutions, leading to a suitable wood production coupled with a stability of the ecosystems.

The analysis which we propose is based on ascertaining the situation of forest from Romani compared with that from other countries of Europe and in the world, in order to draw some particular or even general conclusions.

Presently, the Ukraine is a sparsely wooded country. Woodlands constitute 14.5%. The total forest area is 9.942 mln ha, 8.620 mln ha are covered by forests, and the total volume stock is 1.320 mln m³. The Ukraine area covered by forests can create about 120 mln tons of organic substances annually, draw from the atmosphere more than 234 mln tons of carbon dioxide, and emit up to 182 mln tons of oxygen. It is necessary now to work out the complex measures concerning “The Ukraine’s nature restoration.” Forest management systems and forest growth systems exist in Ukraine.

The following conception is proposed concerning the role of the forest: Comprehensive preservation of existing forests and intensification of their ecological balance of the planet, and stable development of every state. This conception can be common for all European countries.

Increasing demand on wood as a raw material will also demand corresponding methods to achieve this goal. One of the cheapest alternatives to achieve increasing demands on wood, both in quantity and quality, is to improve tree breeding. In the next century significant changes in quality of the environment are expected (e.g. consequences of environmental pollution, global warming etc.). Since the breeding goals (e.g. maximum yield) could be achieved only in defined ecological conditions, for undefined ecological conditions a new breeding goal — maximum adaptability — is proposed.

Management in the Krkonoše Mountains is affected by the destruction of forest ecosystems caused by emissions, and simultaneously by the necessity of protection and support of the natural values of the area, as well as other non-wood-producing functions. The situation is complicated by the ill-calculated conversion of the original forest ecosystems to the even-aged spruce stand, which was carried out in past. The soil acidification caused by the atmospheric deposition is further increased by the decomposition of the spruce litter. The priority objective of the management is a reconstruction of the forest ecosystems to a form close to that of original condition, preferring natural regeneration and processes, preservation of the gene pool of individual autochthonous woody species, preservation and support of biodiversity of ecosystems and a reclamation of the soil threatened by erosion. The region of Krkonoše has been categorized according to natural values, effects of emissions, site conditions and according to the preferences of non-wood producing functions. The composition of the tree species, as well as the technologies used are modified with respect to these categories. From an economics point of view, the management is loss-making. Not even the most urgent forestry activities can be covered using the profit from a sale of timber. A part of forestation and research focused on a success and economical as well as ecological efficiency of the realized measures is covered by the Dutch foundation Face, that “buys” the effect of the CO₂ binding in the biomass of trees. Another financial support is provided by the Ministry of Environment of the Czech Republic. However, some of the important activities (preservation of the gene pool of the Krkonoše woody species, conversion of the spruce plantations which were established improperly in the course of the last 20 years) have not been funded as yet.

Management of the degraded forests in central and eastern Europe requires the development of an action agenda. At least one forest research project and management approach should be initiated and/or continued. The effort should be results-oriented and consistent with ecological balance. Conclusions should guide the application of remedial measures to convert forests to different species, or stabilize the health of existing forests. These measures will contribute to the overall goals of expansion of the European forest, both as a carbon sink and to invigorate the forest products industry in countries of the former United Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR). In particular, neutralization and fertilization of forest soils should be more fully investigated and probably more widely applied. Orderly conversion of softwood monocultures to climax stands should be encouraged. The development of pollution-resistant genotypes should be accelerated. This paper provides the rationale for these forest growth, expansion, and management recommendations.

The contribution — a position paper — is concentrated on an interdisciplinary approach to a solution of the problem of better utilization of Central European forests for structural raw material and value added products. An experience from the Czech Republic is utilized to stress the complexity of problems, especially their dependency on technological, scientific, political, social and economical characteristics as well as historical backgrounds and structural design philosophy.

The authors’ view on certain aspects of socio-economic considerations of the forest resource management and utilization, in regard to conditions in Poland, is summarized herein. An investigation into a joint treatment of the key aspects of forest resource prevention and sustainability, and the use of timber in the building industry sector of Polish economy has been overviewed. The paper constitutes therefore an attempt to position where Poland is and what is happening in forest resource management and timber industry development in the country, and whether the Polish economy would fit to the picture drawn for the Central and Eastern Europe by the natural environment global conservation strategy program. A number of different forest management and timber use related problems have been addressed which would help to direct the decision making process in order to avoid misconceptions and apprehensions in the utilization of forest resources in Poland.

In 1989, the author made a three week Professional Development Visit (PDV) to Wroclaw Technical University (WTU) in Poland. This PD V was sponsored by the National Academy of Sciences in the United States and the Polish Academy of Sciences. The purpose of the visit was to merge the author’s expertise in timber bridge construction with the counterpart expertise of Polish researchers experienced in bridges of other materials. The intended outcome was to be a cooperation in research in bridge infrastructure, connected to timber bridges. By way of that visit, a university level formal cooperation agreement in bridge engineering and management was signed by WTU and Colorado State University (CSU) in 1991.

Forests have always been the most important pillars of the Slovenian farmer’s rural economy, particularly in the mountainous regions. The tradition of the ecological approach and the principle of exploitation of small surfaces in Slovenia has existed for a whole century. The Slovenian hay rack represents a very interesting Slovenian achievement in the field of national joiner architecture.

This paper discusses the main trends for forest utilization in Lithuania. Shortly the present state of Lithuanian forests and the main needs of timber industry are described. It is shown that during the last five years the situation in forests and in the timber industry was sharply stressed to an unsatisfactory one. The main reasons of such a situation in the timber industry are: domestic market becoming weak because of a great decline of building activity; export of raw logs and rough sawn timber products which for the State economy is harmful; insufficient investment into forests and aforestation and into timber industry either from the State or from foreign investors. Subsequently the paper discusses conversion of wood as raw material into various products including building products and application of its in building practice of Lithuania. Finally the paper deals with main trends to develop new value-added building products by the means of increase of load bearing capacity and fire resistance of timber structures and development of new composite members as most efficient value-added products enabling more effective utilization of raw materials and waste from the forests and timber industry permitting to maintain the forests in a better health.

Austrians have been cultivating and using their forests for centuries on the basis of professional knowledge, tradition and love for nature. The idea of sustainable use was born centuries ago and cast in forest law. The latest version of the Austrian forest law dates back to 1975 with an amendment in 1987. It aims at protecting the forest for its 4 functions of multiple use, i.e. commercial production, protection for human settlements, protection of the environment and use for recreation.

Looking back to the finishing 20th century we realize that Europe changed considerably the basic orientations of the societies, of politics and economy and of the relationship between man and nature. Some keywords of these changes are: Colonialism, Nationalism, Faschism, Socialism, Communism, Democracy; Industrialisation, Post Industrial Period; Communication, Globalisation; Environment, Pollution, Ecology.

Building has always played a key role in a community’s economic and social life, and will continue to do so even in modern, highly developed industrialized societys. In the countries of Western Europe 10 to 20 percent of gross domestic product is directly or indirectly created by the building industry. During the 20th century the use of timber for construction in Western Europe went down to 5%, in Eastern Europe even to less. A completly different development can be observed in North America and Scandinavia were timber could hold a 50 to 90% market share. As a consequence, the question of “How do we build and which materials do we use?” is a vital issue.

The paper discusses the main reasons for these different developments and works out some arguments for a wider use of timber in Europes construction industry.

This paper is an attempt to present the main commentaries, findings, conclusions and suggestions concerning the fundamentals of management of forestry resources in regard to socio-economic aspects. The author strongly distinguishes between the natural, technological and economic sphere of subjects, which have been analyzed. A systems approach is presented. The basic concepts have been discussed. The matter of economics and economy, concerning the forest resources and in forestry, is stressed especially.

The purpose of the is paper is to outline the basic questions of systems approach to forests and to forestry, and to suggest some actions required to save and better use forests - not only as elements for the human environment, and not only in Central and Eastern Europe.

This paper reflects a position concerning issues related to profitable and sustainable forest ecosystem utilization. An attempt is made to extract from the author’s extensive global experience in forest products and wood engineering an understanding of the key components in successful international forest products commerce. Experiences drawn from Australia, Finland, Honduras, Malaysia, Mexico, Poland, Sweden, U.K., and U.S. constitute the frame of reference for the discussion. General areas of consideration include: resource base, cultural issues, national and international policy concerns, national infrastructure, and educational levels.

Economic and political reforms in Russia caused deep economic crisis in the forest sector. As a result Russian forestry suffers from shortage of financial resources to manage forests on the sustainable basis. Many silvicultural and ecological rules are not followed.

The acting financial system in forestry is based on the budget money distribution and does not stimulate effective forest management. In order to increase the role of Russian forests in the world environment protection, a new financial system must be implemented. This system must combine the principles of market pricing and state regulation. It must be used as an economical base of the ecological certification in forestry following the criteria and the indicators of the sustainable forest management.

The recurrent theme of this workshop is the sustainable development of forests focusing on Eastern and Central Europe. The ecosystem concept should by now be thoroughly familiar to all foresters. But how can one evaluate the term “sustainability” without understanding related fields? Where are the limits of those ecosystems, to what extent are these systems open? What do we know about the socio-economic operation, in the past, how we could apply some old, but forgotten ideas? What do the foresters think about joint projects with other cooperating engineers to realize the sustainability in forestry?

In Bavaria biomass is the most important regenerated resource of energy besides water. For the energetic utilization of biomass the following groups of products should be developed:

In the long term, the future percentage of biomass used as a resource of energy could be 12%. But in a first step only 5% of the primary energy requirement should be sufficiently supplied with biomass. Biomass as a combustible has a special importance in Bavaria. Therefore residues of forest work, of the utilization of wood, of landscape conservation works, and of the agriculture, such as straw and energy crops are used. For the reason of rationalization within the utilization of biomass a self propelling biotruck, that condenses biomass, was developed.

The production and utilization of renewable resources in Bavaria give new tasks to agricultural areas and create new jobs. Moreover many positive effects for the environment and the economic welfare are given.