Rivers of India

A drainage basin and river network morphometry offer information on water discharge, maximum and minimum specific run-off, and regional hydrological variance. The catchment areas of the Dudhi, Palakmati, and Ganjal rivers, all of which are tributaries of the Narmada River basin, will be undertaken using remote sensing and geographical information system (GIS). Using ASTER, IRS LISS III data is combined with remote sensing satellite data to identify river course borders, river basins, stream networks, and different morphometric traits, using ArcGIS software. Stream orders range from first to sixth, with the Dudhi and Palakmati rivers having the fifth-order stream and the Ganjal River having the sixth-order stream. The morphometric study demonstrates that all catchment areas have drainage textures ranging from coarse to fine, defining them as typical basins with an elongation ratio of >0.9, indicating that they are circular in form and have drained a significant amount of water. The basin’s drainage area ranges from 172 to 1639 km², and its drainage pattern is sub-dendritic to dendritic characterised as a series of streams with similar lithology and gently sloping topography. In higher-order streams, a high bifurcation ratio implies a big amount of water has been received in the upper basin area. In Ganjal and Dudhi, both drainage density and stream frequency are low, implying that surface run-off is not quickly drained from the basin, leaving it prone to flooding. The amount to which denudation agents have depressed the surface is not significantly impacted by gullies, and the stream length ratio rises from lower to higher order which indicates that an area is in its mature geomorphic stage. The majority of the morphometric parameters imply that river basin characteristics are heavily influenced by geology and geomorphological factors. This data, acquired through remote sensing techniques, can be utilised for river morphological applications and studies, such as monitoring current flood control projects, and findings can also be utilised to develop a plan for the study area’s long-term management.

There are competing demands for water as a result of rising population, expanding urbanization, fast industrialization, and the need to increase agricultural productivity. The monsoons have been essential to India’s agriculture since ancient times. Agriculture is greatly impacted by changes in monsoon patterns. Even the rising temperatures are having an impact on Indian agriculture. Nearly 60% of cropland is used for growing crops, and these crops will be most affected by climate change. The implementation of major and minor irrigation schemes has greatly benefited the nation; however the sustainability objectives have not yet been met. The relatively recent action of connecting rivers has created new irrigation opportunities that may raise production and productivity while also eradicating regional disparities. This chapter is the result of numerous publications from the Planning Commission, Ministry of Agriculture, Central Water Commission Report, Government of India, Working Group Minutes Report, blogs, and other related agencies; it comprehensively discusses the various aspects of irrigation with particular reference to multipurpose projects addressing the development of irrigation facilities. Achievements in Indian agriculture since independence, such as the major and medium irrigation projects strategy, the nation’s water grid system, and a detailed look at the different types and sources of irrigation, from categorization of water sources in India to intensification of irrigation with the most recent data on irrigation development source-wise and different plan periods, as well as the most urgent issue of climate change.

The River Jhelum and its tributaries form the main drainage system of the Kashmir Valley, India. Flowing through the axial part of the tectonically active Kashmir Valley, the river is characterized by diverse morphology manifested in channel width variations, meandering bends, braid bars, channel sharp bends, unpaired terraces, and perturbations in longitudinal profile. The river continuum extends from partly confined to laterally unconfined (alluvial) to confined variants. To ascertain the causes of this anomalous geomorphology, we divided the river into different reaches and used various techniques and river geomorphic indices to evaluate the river response to disturbing forces. Most of the geomorphic indices were calculated from Google Earth validated with field survey. The geomorphic indices used include sinuosity index (SI), lateral entrenchment ratio (ER), stream-gradient index (SL), and braided index (Bi), augmented with river width and longitudinal profile analysis. In the middle reaches, the river is more sinuous than the upper and lower reaches owing to the presence of less cohesive material and the gentle gradient. River terraces are mostly observed on the left bank, while the right bank terraces show occasional presence due to continuous lateral erosion reflecting ongoing valley floor deformation associated with Himalayan tectonics. An abundant sediment supply from the high gradient tributaries, variation in water discharge, channel planform geometry, and width characteristics have resulted in the braided character of the river in some of the reaches. Our results of geomorphic indices and field observations reveal that the channel morphology is controlled by both tectono-geomorphic processes and anthropogenic pressures.

The increasing global population is causing much damage to the ecosystem’s natural balance, especially the “lifeline” of any landmass and rivers. But with gradual civilization and industrialization, this serendipity of riverine systems is being compromised. Since the past century, people are trying to understand the scientific role of any river ecosystem along with the source of pollution, either geogenic or due to anthropogenic acts. Reports have shown the involvement of uncontrolled industrial effluent discharge, untreated or partially treated household sewage and release, and disposal of hot water from nuclear thermal plants are the main reason for pollution. The Ganga-Yamuna has average Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, Cu, and Zn concentrations within a range of 2690, 1310, 1090, 1120, 2000, and 15,320 μg/L and 2553, 1101, 3627, 851, 4791, and 3518 μg/L, respectively. Due to several inter-elemental chemical interactions of river beds or sediments, natural polluting toxic elements get released from complex compounds and dissolved in the aqueous phase, becoming bioavailable to the phytoplankton and zooplankton from where such pollutants get biomagnified in higher trophic level in the food chain. The prescribed biological oxygen demand (BOD) of river water has been prioritized as threat category 1 if found ≥30 mg/L with coliform microbial populations of 2500 MPN/100 mL. This chapter focuses on such studies, with state-wise analysis of the Indian subcontinent, which pointed out the recent river pollution status, in a concise way along with a brief discussion on the available mitigation strategies for river pollution.

The Godavari and Krishna Rivers, which originate in the Deccan Traps and flow through a variety of geological formations before emptying their sedimentary burden into the Bay of Bengal (BoB), are two of Peninsular India’s most significant rivers. Sediments from the Godavari and Krishna Rivers, major, minor, and trace elements geochemistry show signs of sedimentary sorting during transportation and deposition. The primary source of the bed sediments in the upper portions (upstream) of these rivers is the weathering of basaltic rocks from the Deccan volcanic province. In contrast, the weathering of old felsic rocks, which have a vastly different chemical and mineralogical makeup, is the main source of sediments in lower reaches (downstream). The very elevated strontium and neodymium isotope ratios in downstream sediments (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd) indicate a large contribution from weathering of felsic minerals. Rare-earth elements (REEs) have manifested distinctive patterns that reflect the mineralogy of their source rocks. When subjected to weathering, transit, and depositional processes, the light rare-earth elements (LREEs) often exhibit more fractionation than the heavy rare-earth elements (HREEs). In the higher reaches of the Godavari and Krishna basins, the chemical index of alteration (CIA) varies greatly, indicating significant regional heterogeneity in the degree of chemical weathering. On the other hand, downstream sediments with relatively high CIA values have shown parental rocks to have undergone moderate to strong chemical weathering.

One of the major dangers to the survival of river ecosystems, particularly in developing nations, is sand mining. Unchecked urbanization is the main factor causing this illicit activity. Sand is a significant and essential component of the concrete jungles that make up urban building. Sand becomes a crucial resource as a result, but its supply is unfortunately controlled. Comparing river sand to other types of sand or replacement materials, river sand excels in terms of quality, shape, durability, mineral composition, and availability. As per UNEP-GEAS, 2014 river sand is the most consumed resource, which is naturally available and globally comprises about 85% of minerals (by weight) extracted annually. This cheap natural resource and its diverse properties make it a crucial resource for other industries like electroplating, glass, ceramics, aircraft, etc. As a result, sand mining has become more popular in recent years, whether officially or illegally, especially in growing nations like China and India. Reviewing the effects of sand mining on the elements of river biomes and using cutting-edge technology to monitor these activities were the goals of this study. The study found that illegal sand mining, which harms both the environment and society economically, has grown to be the most underappreciated threat to the river ecology. The monitoring and evaluation of the sand resources and the mining activities have been made easier with the use of remote sensing and satellite data from sources like LANDSAT, BHUVAN, and others in geographic information systems (GIS) software like ArcGIS, QGIS. Many corrective actions are being taken, such as the use of demolition and construction debris, M-sand, and quarry dust, although these alternatives may not always be affordable and environmentally compassionate. Therefore, to handle the demand of the mining activities, research funding is needed to identify better sand substitutes. In order to interrupt the cycle of illicit mining and implement strong regulations against the sand mafias, there is a critical need to raise awareness among the locals and residents. To protect the soil, water, aquatic life, and socioeconomic stability of the residents, better watershed management plans also need to be implemented.

Rivers served mankind for eons and fulfilled their needs for water supply. However, rivers have been drastically modified and exploited due to the increasing industrialization and urbanization. This chapter majorly focuses on the comprehensive evaluation of river health of Narmada: fifth largest river of India and its two major tributaries based on five measuring indicators such as biological analysis, chemical analysis, physical analysis, substrate analysis, and land use/land cover analysis. The results of these indices are based on the scoring and ranking framework that clearly indicates that the river has moderate pollution levels and need immediate restoration and pollution control strategies for further intimating with the policymakers and governance systems. This study reflects the river health assessment more effectively and feasibly. This tool could be used as a futuristic approach for the health assessment of Indian River systems and biodiversity conservation.

The city of Jaunpur is an ancient city, situated on the banks of river Gomti. Population growth and urbanization rate in the last few decades have affected the environment of this city at a rapid pace like other big cities of India. The process of population growth, urbanization, and industrialization accelerated the rate of environmental degradation which has increased the level of pollutants. Due to population growth, urbanization, and industrialization, all the sources of drinking water in Jaunpur city have become polluted to such an extent that any use without their proper treatment can cause serious health problems. River Gomti in Jaunpur serves as a major source of domestic water supply to the city; but if drainage situation is taken into account, the river during its course directly receives untreated domestic wastewater from Jaunpur city (about 450 MLD). Due to this uncontrolled situation, the quality of river water is deteriorating day by day. The water quality of the Gomti River can be seen as less polluted when entering the city, but it increases as it moves into the core of the city.

The present study intends to determine status of water quality of river Gomti stretch in Jaunpur city. It also aims to determine the level of variables to assess an integrated result which will depict the accurate quality status in order to manage the various location points for planning and prospects. Seven stations were selected along the stretch of river to determine the quality of water. Water quality data has been collected through sampling and its analysis for pre- and post-monsoon season (2015 and 2016) of water in river Gomti. Weighted Arithmetic Index method adopted by various researcher of this field has been applied to calculate the water quality index (WQI).

The Son Basin, India, comprehensive geomorphology has been inferred using remote sensing and GIS approaches. The comprehensive morphometric parameters of the Son River and its main tributaries, the  Ghaghghar River, Kanhar River, Dongar River, and Rihand River, have been analyzed and compared in the current study. The three analyzed parameters—linear aspect, aerial aspect, and relief aspect—were all taken into account and contrasted from a wider angle. We carefully examined the geographical variability in the geomorphology of the Son Basin on a larger scale after subjecting the data set to statistical analysis and removing outliers. The aforementioned study is very helpful for upcoming hydrological projects, as well as for civil engineering, irrigation, and flood management purposes. It also serves as a milestone for societal growth.

The carbon cycle’s key processes are governed by the river networks. They start to matter for estimating human-caused carbon emissions and further affect the effect on the atmosphere. The carbon flows are altered in terms of their time, structure, and amplitude. According to research, rivers play a significant role in the global carbon cycle by emitting GHGs including carbon dioxide (CO₂) and methane (CH₄) into the atmosphere. Approximately 200 million tons of carbon are transferred annually through rivers. The ocean receives terrigenous organic matter (OM) from one of the most significant sources. The majority of the carbon that is released by plants and rocks is absorbed by rivers. A portion is transported downstream to the open waters, while the remainder is discharged after decomposition back into the atmosphere. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is transported by land through rivers. When it enters the ocean, it is preserved for millions of years in the deep sea. The systems that regulate the GHG emissions from river networks are not entirely understood by our present studies, particularly in terms of variability. We can better understand how the climate and land usage are changing with more research. This paper covers several carbon sources that contribute to the formation of the elemental cycle, with a particular emphasis on river carbon. We must investigate how much carbon enters the ocean and every phase it goes through in the rivers in order to lessen its impact on the climate. This could result in a significant means of regulating the climate. They could significantly alter their carbon transport system as a result of chemical alterations and river route modifications. Domestic sewage flow can have a greater anthropogenic impact on the concentration of DOC, particularly seasonal changes brought on by flood plains and soils from river catchment.

The Indus civilization, also known as the Harappan civilization, has long been thought to have been river-based since two of its largest and best-known sites, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, are located next to sizable perennial Himalayan Rivers. One of the five major Harappan sites in the Indian subcontinent is Dholavira in Gujarat, which is situated in the Great Rann of Kachchh on the western edge of Khadir Island. Many have argued that the Great Rann of Kachchh formerly contained a powerful fluvial system and that the decline of the Indus civilization was brought on by the desert region’s dried-up rivers. The disappearance of the Himalayan River Saraswati and a severe global drought at the start of the Meghalayan Stage, according to Sengupta et al. (J Quat Sci 35(3): 382–395, 2019) and other researchers, may have contributed to the downfall of the Harappan city of Dholavira. The goal of the current study is to determine whether a fluvial system existed in the EGRK and to test the theory that the collapse of the Harappan civilization’s Dholavira urban settlement was influenced by changes in the hydrological conditions. On the NW edge of Khadir Island, thick quaternary alluvium layers of about 4.5 m exposed were looked into for this purpose. Our study also supports the earlier hypothesis that the abandonment of the Dholavira urban settlement in EGRK was primarily brought on by a gradual decline in the ISM between 5 ka and 2 ka rather than the presence of a significant fluvial system, based on sedimentological, geochemical, and geochronological analysis.

Flooding is generally the overflow of water onto the lands that is normally dry. It is a major issue in worldwide and has affected many lives and land for several decades. It may not stop but can be preventive. Ghaghara River, the major tributary of Ganga River in Gangetic plain, has witnessed the floods of every year in monsoon season. Ghaghara River originated from Mapchachungo glacier in Tibet Mountain at a height of 4800 km near Mansarovar Lake. It travel to 507 km length in Nepal afterward reaches to India and cover 1080 km length up to it confluence to Ganga River at Doriganj, Chhapra town in Bihar. The present study has been initiated to flood risk zonation using multiple criteria analysis (MCA) for analyzing the major issue in Ghaghara basin. The thematic layers, i.e., interpolated rainfall; slope, micro watersheds, drainage density, land use/land cover, soil surface texture and soil moisture were used to delineate the flood hazard risk zonation map. Thematic map has been prepared by georeferenced imageries of Survey of India (SOI) toposheet and remote sensing satellite data (RS) of SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission) data and LISS –III (Linear Imaging Self Scanning). The study identified promising results for the establishment and categorization of flood risk zones into very low hazard risk zone (4%), low hazard risk zone (8.5%), moderate hazard risk zone (23.6%), high hazard risk zone (42%), and very high risk zones (21.9%). It is estimated on the basis of the study that ~27,490 localities were influenced by floods along the major channels, i.e., Ghaghara, Sarda, and Rapti. The results of this study could allow better relief operations and reduce the risk of flooding.

It is evident that most of the geomorphic work in seasonal tropics is accomplished by individual flood events. Studies on some large Indian rivers indicate that the channel forms and processes are related to very large but relatively infrequent flood events (Goswami DC, Water Resour Res 21:959–978, 1985; Kale VS, Ely LL, Enzel Y, Baker VR, Geomorphology 10:157–168, 1994; Gupta A, Natural and anthropogenic influences in the fluvial geomorphology. American Geophysical Union, Washington DC, 1995; Gupta A, Kale VS, Rajaguru SN, Varieties of Fluvial Form. Wiley, New York, 1999). The impact of floods depends not so much on the amount of water as on the energy exerted by it. The adjustments in the width-depth ratio and hydraulic variables with discharge have been shown to very useful concepts in evaluating the potential of flows to be geomorphologically effective (Kale VS, Ely LL, Enzel Y, Baker VR, Geomorphology 10:157–168, 1994; Gupta A, Natural and anthropogenic influences in the fluvial geomorphology. American Geophysical Union, Washington DC, 1995). Baker and Costa (Catastrophic flooding. Allen and Unwin, London, 1987) suggested that geomorphic effectiveness of floods is related to the flood power defined in terms of channel boundary shear stress and power per unit area of bed. Moreover, Baker (Flood geomorphology. Wiley Interscience, New York, 1988) and Wohl (J Geol 101:749–761, 1993) noted that the regime conditions of the flows and the degree of turbulence also play a role of considerable importance in the erosion and transport of coarse sediment. Therefore, in the present chapter an attempt has been made to understand flood hydrology, hydraulics, and hydrodynamic characteristics of the Tapi River and its tributaries, on the basis of available annual peak discharge data and cross-sectional data collected during the field surveys.

The analysis reveals that even during the monsoon, the discharges fluctuate by several orders of magnitude. The episodic high flow events are sharp and distinct. The time series plots of annual maximum series data reflect considerable interannual variability. High variability is also indicated by the values of coefficient of variation and the flash flood magnitude index. In general, the maximum annual peak discharges are 2–4 times higher than the mean annual maximum discharges. All these indices indicate that the possibility of the river experiencing significant geomorphic work during large floods is higher. High unit discharges in the upper reaches indicate the high potential of floods.

The channel of the Tapi River is box-shaped, with more or less flat channel floor and high banks. Therefore, during the dry season and during low flows, the water spreads, and the width is high and depth is low. Consequently, the width-depth ratio is high and the channel reflects all the characteristics of a shallow, wide channel. However, in response to heavy rainfall as the stage and discharge increases, there is an increase only in the depth of flow. As a result, the width-depth ratio decreases, and the hydraulic efficiency increases dramatically. The results of hydraulic geometry analysis suggest that the behavior of the alluvial Tapi River is not truly alluvial but quasi-bedrock. The channel geometry of the Tapi River plays a significant role in efficient conveyance of monsoon floods through the changes in the hydraulic variables with increasing discharge. The unit stream power and bed shear stress range between 27 and 1518 Wm^-2 and 10 and 263 Nm^-2, respectively. Although the estimated values of stream power are not unusually high, hydraulic parameters suggest that if the duration is long, large floods (Qmax) are capable of perhaps eroding alluvial banks and moving cobbles and pebbles in temporary suspension and boulders as a bed load (Baker VR, Costa JE, Catastrophic flooding. Allen and Unwin, London, 1987). The estimated Froude numbers for different sites, as expected, are less than 1, indicating that the flows are dominantly subcritical. However, the occurrence of impressive scablands and other erosional features in bedrock channels, particularly between Dhanora and Burhanpur, suggests that Froude numbers close to 1 are reached from time to time (Kale VS, Ely LL, Enzel Y, Baker VR, Geomorphology 10:157–168, 1994). High values of Reynolds number indicate that the flood discharges could be extremely turbulent and, thus, are capable of accomplishing a variety of geomorphic activities. The bedrock reaches at Dhanora produce the highest Reynolds number, and it is likely that this may be the reach of very high and intense bedrock erosion. Estimates of the values of critical velocity for inception of cavitation indicate that none of the powerful floods on the Tapi River, for which some data are available, exceed the conditions expressed by the equation. This is in spite of the fact that the maximum surface velocities in the alluvial sections range between 3.7 and 5.5 m/s during large floods. This, therefore, suggests that the process of cavitation is confined only to very narrow, steep reaches during extraordinary floods, which occur at a much longer interval.

The present study is a report which highlights the efficiency and benefit of GIS and remote sensing for qualitative and quantitative assessment of detailed geomorphology of the Ukhma River Basin based on a morphometric investigation. The river Ukhma is a northwestern tributary of the Tons River in Central India, occupying an area of approximately 745 square kilometers within the Vindhyan group of rock. The river longitudinal profile and the study of basin lineaments provide the drainage dynamics of the Ukhma basin, implying that regional tectonics controlled the drainage pattern of the Ukhma river basin. The asymmetry factor of the Ukhma river indicates a displacement of the channel on the left side, that is, in the north direction.