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Secondary Cities and Local Governance in Southern Africa

herausgegeben von: Abraham R. Matamanda, James Chakwizira, Kudzai Chatiza, Verna Nel

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

Buchreihe : Local and Urban Governance

Enthalten in: Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" , Springer Professional "Technik" , Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

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This book is the first to consider the roles, challenges and governance responses of secondary cities in southern Africa to changing circumstances. Among the challenges are governance under conditions of resource scarcity, managing informality, the effects and responses to climate change and the changing roles of the cities within the national space economy. It fills the gap in the literature on secondary cities with original case studies drawn from South Africa, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. The authors are all African scholars, working and living in the region with intimate knowledge of the settings they describe. The book is critical as it includes such regional case studies of different secondary cities in Southern Africa but also because of it’s multidisciplinarity: it contains substantive and pertinent issues such as climate change, disaster management, local economic development, and basic services delivery. It considers diverse environments, yet with similar challenges that could provide useful policy and governance proposals for other cities.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Frontmatter

Chapter 1. Introduction

Abstract

This chapter introduces the book. The focus is on providing a nuanced understanding of secondary cities and their role in urban development and urban agenda. It is pointed out that secondary cities are contested, starting with the ambiguities in defining what they are and their place within the urban hierarchies in different countries. These categorisation and conception are especially important as they form the bedrock upon which government policies are formulated and implemented regarding the governance and management of the secondary cities. We thus examine the meanings of secondary cities by identifying the typologies of these secondary cities in a southern African context. Secondary cities are inherently complex and have comparative advantages that may spur sustained urbanisation. Hence, we explore these opportunities and most importantly situate the exploration within the bounds of local governance and question why governments continue to marginalise these secondary cities when they have so much potential of alleviating urban challenges. The chapter proceeds to present the aim and objectives of the book and lastly outlines the scope of the book.

Abraham R. Matamanda, Verna Nel, James Chakwizira, Kudzai Chatiza

Urban Governance and Urbanisation

Frontmatter

Chapter 2. Rapid Urbanisation and Urban Governance Responses in Chitungwiza, Zimbabwe

Abstract

Rapid urbanisation coupled with poor urban governance in most African cities has resulted in uncontrolled urban sprawl, discordant spatial developments, and informal land governance systems. In Chitungwiza, urban land governance had been hijacked by politically backed housing cooperatives and land barons who became the planning authority. This chapter explores the different strategies that can help Chitungwiza Municipality improve its urban land governance system and make the process generally beneficial to the residents. The study used both primary and secondary data sources. The data was analysed using trend analysis, simple descriptive statistics, and thematic analysis. It found that an informal land delivery system in Chitungwiza led to illegal developments, some located in sensitive areas such as wetlands and within the flood plains of the city’s water courses. Therefore, the study recommends policy interventions that aim to eliminate informal/corrupt land governance practices in Chitungwiza. Such policies include creating and maintaining an electronic land database, which is updated regularly to show changes in land ownership patterns in the city. This should be preceded by comprehensive mapping of the city’s land area showing different land uses and land ownership patterns.

Tazviona Richman Gambe

Chapter 3. Exploring Nelspruit as a Historical Spatial Jigsaw Corridor-Based Secondary City: A Spatial Governance Geographical Perspective

Abstract

Nelspruit secondary city is the economic hub of Mpumalanga province under the authority of Mbombela Local Municipality (MLM). Located along the N4 corridor, Nelspruit links Johannesburg, Pretoria, Mozambique and Swaziland. Nelspruit is an expanding city sandwiched in a tourism region. With rapid urbanisation and the implementation of post-1994 apartheid reversal policies, the challenge of managing expanding peri-urban settlements is emerging. Mbombela Local Municipality includes the former Transitional Local Councils of Nelspruit, White River and Hazyview as well as the Transitional Rural Councils of Nelspruit and Nsikazi. Consequently, Nelspruit city reveals a divided urban structure consisting of a previously well-serviced ‘white’ developed core (i.e. White River, Nelspruit and Hazyview) that is surrounded by an under-serviced ‘black’ outer urban and peri-urban periphery (i.e. Matsulu, Kanyamazane, Daantjie, Kabokweni and Nsikazi area). Despite recent improvements such as N4 corridor by-pass, R40 upgrade and proposed bus rapid transport (BRT) routes, the urban housing, industrial, commercial, peri-urban and transport systems remain inefficient. Making use of a transit-oriented development theory and approach, Nelspruit’s urban development opportunities are highlighted while constraints are discussed. It is concluded that Nelspruit’s development model can better integrate land use and transport corridor dividends for enhanced growth of its core and immediate environments. This requires a strengthening of the urban housing, transportation and spatial development frameworks and institutions so that a (new) appropriate, adaptable and resilient system set-up is anchored and reproduced at all scales, places and cultures and over time for inclusive outcomes, outputs and products.

James Chakwizira

Chapter 4. Governance in South African Secondary Cities

Abstract

South Africa has a well-defined set of secondary cities and a local planning regime that provides a governance framework. Its secondary cities have two main characteristics with implications for governance: they lack economic diversity, and they have large rural hinterlands. This chapter uses concepts from evolutionary governance theory to discuss six main governance challenges in these cities: strategic and economic planning, the diverse set of role players, the rural hinterland and the regional services function, mining booms and busts, spatial governance, and the pressure to become metropolitan areas. We conclude that path dependencies, goal dependencies, and interdependencies, compounded by a planning system that emphasises plan making rather than implementation, hamper governance in these cities.

Lochner Marais, Verna Nel

Urban Land Governance

Frontmatter

Chapter 5. Transactional and Supplementary Strategies for Accessing Land Among Migrants on the Margins: An Ethnographic Study Among Malawian Migrants at Lydiate Informal Settlement, Zimbabwe

Abstract

This chapter examines the various transactional and supplementary strategies adopted by migrants on the margins to access much-coveted land. Situated in transnational theory, the study is based on ethnographic fieldwork in Lydiate, a peri-urban informal settlement of Norton town, a secondary city in Zimbabwe. The study revealed that left alone, marginalised migrants in secondary cities resort to transactions in the form of inheritance, purchase, and rentals based on fictive kin. They also affiliate with modern political patrons, traditional leaders, and investors in accessing land. In other instances, migrants turn to supplementary strategies such as using occult, witchcraft, and land seizures to secure land. However, supplementary strategies are measures of last resort. The study concludes that informal settlements in secondary cities emerge as ‘hyperactive’ spaces with novel forms of authority that regulate access and security over resources for urban settlement and production. It also emerges as a zone of conviviality, where people deploy time and affection in generating resources necessary for their reproduction in contested spaces that they too eye for as home of a sort. These insights are consistent with transactional theory in social anthropology that argues that individuals are not limited by hostile or risky environments in which they live. They create shortcuts, bypass agreed social rules, and find strategies to secure resources and achieve long-term interests. However, marginalised populations do not always adopt competitive strategies to access resources, as postulated by transnational theory. What is modest in this study is that sometimes people enter into conviviality and other cooperation mechanisms within themselves and across to secure their interests and belonging. The study recommends that responsible authorities craft policies and arrangements to ensure that marginalised migrants have formal land access in fast-growing secondary cities.

Johannes I. Bhanye, Vupenyu Dzingirai, Maléne M. Campbell

Chapter 6. Public Land Management, Corruption, and the Quest for Sustainable Secondary Cities in Zimbabwe

Abstract

Following peri-urban land reform, the state owns significant land in secondary cities of Zimbabwe. Public land ownership raises governance issues because the power to allocate public land is of great economic and political importance and has become a focus of corrupt practices. Public land management is an issue because it is dominated by a top-down process that encourages favours to special interests and promotes polarisation to obtain such favours. This chapter examines a variety of opaque and corrupt practices in public land management that privilege favoured entities. A case study approach was used to gather data from publications, reports, and key informants. Based on content and thematic analysis, the chapter draws the main conclusions and policy advice on the goal-directed management and control of public land in secondary cities. It demonstrates how influential people have been using power structures to make money from public land management. The solution to the problems requires political will and the transfer of public land ownership to local authorities rather than individuals for sustainable and responsible management.

Charles Chavunduka, Tsungirayi Diana Tsikira

Governance for Climate Change Disasters

Frontmatter

Chapter 7. Emaciated Potential: Reflecting on How War and Natural Disasters Stunt Beira’s National-Regional Importance and What Could Be Done About It

Abstract

Beira is a secondary city in Mozambique. It is important not only to Mozambique but also in terms of being a gateway to Central Africa and the rest of the Southern African Development Community (SADC). This latter opportunity for Beira’s growth appears to be underactivated. It is also not adequately discussed for other SADC secondary cities of appropriate, yet untapped regional significance. In the case of Beira, the growth has historically been held back by war and natural disasters. These two factors have affected the city and its hinterland, the Beira Corridor. This stunted growth is further exacerbated by gaps in regional urban policy for strategic secondary cities. The chapter explores the extent to which national and regional urban policies are connected in Mozambique. It draws on a review of relevant academic and policy literature at the Mozambican and SADC levels to illuminate strategic responses that may or may not elevate the national and regional importance of the city connecting its planning to other secondary cities in SADC and attracting regional attention to investment along the corridors connecting them and within the individual cities. In doing so, lessons are drawn for Mozambican and SADC urban development policy regarding secondary cities and regional infrastructural investment in general.

Kudzai Chatiza, Tariro Nyevera

Chapter 8. Land Use Planning for Climate Change Adaptation in Secondary Cities: Insights from Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe

Abstract

Climate change is no longer a myth but a reality that requires urgent mitigation and adaptation strategies to curtail its devastating impacts. In urban areas, land use planning plays a critical role in shaping the future of towns and cities, and the same applies with regard to integrating climate change strategies to create inclusive, sustainable, safe, and resilient secondary cities. This study examines the challenges confronting the employment of land use planning strategies aimed at promoting adaptation to climate change in secondary cities in Africa. Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe, is used as a case study. Primary and secondary data sources inform this study, where data was collected through the review of policy documents and interviews with key informants. The study reveals that land use planning in Chinhoyi has yet to integrate climate change adaptation, as is evident from the sprawling of the town. The land use planning process fails to acknowledge the realities of climate change, as is evident from the lack of institutionalisation of climate issues at the local level. We conclude that the existing disconnect between land use planning and climate change adaptation largely emanates from lack of skills, technology, funds, and personnel in the milieu of limited understanding of climate change.

Abraham R. Matamanda, Nelson Chanza, Edwin Nyamugadza, Queen L. Chinozvina

Urban Service Delivery and Governance

Frontmatter

Chapter 9. The Intricacy of Water and Sanitation Management in Masvingo City, Zimbabwe

Abstract

Effective water supply and sanitation management remains an uphill task in most cities in the South, especially in Zimbabwe. Using a qualitative methodology, this chapter explores the different strategies for improving the water supply and sanitation management system in Masvingo City. Data were collected from water and sanitation experts directly and indirectly involved in water and sanitation issues at city and district levels. Data analysis was carried out through thematic and content analyses. The study found that the management of water supply and sanitation in Masvingo City is increasingly threatened by institutional weaknesses, unfavourable water governance structures, and financial instability. The operational water and sanitation coordination framework in Zimbabwe is creating confusion, tensions, and overlaps in the water and sanitation sector, especially at the district level. The separation of urban and rural water and sanitation management is a weakness that sets up water and sanitation institutions for failure. The study proposes several strategies that can improve water supply and sanitation management: the amalgamation of rural and urban water supply and sanitation governance structures; the promotion of inclusivity, concerted efforts, and shared responsibility among water and sanitation stakeholders; and the promotion of ‘resident patriotism’ as a way of improving the city’s revenue base.

Tazviona Richman Gambe, Thomas Karakadzai

Chapter 10. Governing Urban Food Systems in Secondary Cities: Contestations and Struggles from Chitungwiza, Zimbabwe

Abstract

Food is a critical basic human need affecting different urban life facets. Its contribution to urban health cannot be understated, especially considering food quality. Food access is also a measure of poverty levels, and this is a critical indicator that relates to sustainable development goal (SDG) 1. Overall, the availability of food in cities is vital and links to SDG 11, which focuses on the livability of human settlements. However, planners seem to pay little attention to food systems in cities, despite their importance. The chapter examines how urban governance in secondary cities relates to food systems. Using Chitungwiza, Zimbabwe, as a case study, we analyze how urban governance in this secondary city impacts food systems. This analysis focused on the interrogation of the governance of food production systems, which include urban agriculture within and on the edges of Chitungwiza. This interrogation is especially important considering how residential development in Chitungwiza has been encroaching into the communal lands on the periphery of the city. These areas, such as Seke, have been vibrant hubs of horticultural production. A qualitative approach guides this chapter, where mapping, surveys, and interviews have been triangulated with secondary data sources to enhance our findings.

Hussein Mugumbate, Wesley Selemani, Abraham R. Matamanda

Planning, Urban Management and Policy

Frontmatter

Chapter 11. Changing Centre-Local Relations and the Financing of Urban Development in Secondary Cities: A Comparative Study of Zimbabwe and South Africa

Abstract

Most urbanisation in developing countries occurs in secondary cities, yet their revenue base is relatively declining. The chapter traces the changing centre-local relations to establish the scope for future development funding in secondary cities. This is important because estimates indicate that if secondary cities were better equipped to steer their economic assets and development, the gross domestic product could double or triple, with a significant developmental impact on their hinterlands. The research design adopted a comparative approach to urban finance in Zimbabwe and South Africa. Data collection was based on literature reviews and key informant interviews. The results show that both countries have been centralising revenue collection and reducing the scope for local finance. This has increased the dependence of secondary cities on intergovernmental transfers at a time when central governments are facing economic challenges. In the future, secondary cities will need to look for alternative sources of revenue, including land value capture and public-private partnerships or concessions.

Charles Chavunduka, Edith Risinamhodzi, Jacob Nyamuda

Chapter 12. Sasolburg: A Town Built Around the Chemical Industry Suffering Under Poor Governance and Its Environmental Legacy

Abstract

Sasolburg is one of the ‘new towns’ in South Africa developed during the 1940s and 1950s to house employees at nascent industrial and mining locations as part of South Africa’s industrialisation drive. It is linked to the petrochemical industry, specifically the development of Sasol, which refined the coal-to-oil process and is now the leading petrochemical manufacturer in the country. Although Sasol has played a pivotal role in the development of South Africa and is considered the industrial hub of the Free State, it is also the second-largest emitter of greenhouse gases in the country. This article traces the development of Sasolburg from its inception to its current situation within the Metsimaholo Municipality and its continuing dependence on the petrochemical industry.

Verna Nel, Mareli Hugo, Abraham R. Matamanda, Mark Oranje

Chapter 13. De-industrialisation, Urban Governance Challenges and Deteriorating Urban Infrastructure in Norton, Zimbabwe: Is the Town Ruralising?

Abstract

This chapter is based on a medium-sized Zimbabwean town that is under rapid urbanisation and experiencing numerous urban challenges. It explores how a collapsed manufacturing industry and economy compromised local government functions in the town. It documents how the town is in a financial crisis due to revenue challenges, which, in turn, led to the deterioration of critical infrastructure and service delivery at a time when it is recording rapid urban growth. Confronted by these numerous urban challenges, the local authority and residents devised some interventions, most of which, however, fall short of meeting what is largely regarded as ‘proper’ urban standards. Thus, the town witnessed a rise in predominantly rural practices, which raises the question of whether it is losing its urbanity and experiencing ruralisation. While the findings speak to what some existing literature has framed as the ruralisation of urban spaces, this chapter argues that these urban local government challenges are not a new phenomenon in Global South secondary cities. It introduces a new perspective on the hypothesised ruralisation and argues that while it is largely portrayed as a result of urban governance and development failures, the proliferation of rural-like practices in a city also demonstrates the innovative and resilient character of the African secondary city in the face of many challenges.

Martin Magidi

Chapter 14. Genius Loci: Unlocking the Particularities and Potentialities of Beitbridge in Zimbabwe to Enhance Public Place Quality

Abstract

Founded on place making and, in particular, the ‘sense of place’, genius loci means the ‘spirit of a place’ or the ‘DNA’ of a place. The term is synonymous with the distinctiveness, particularity, special character, or unique identity of a place. Everything and every place have their ‘genius’ established over time by collecting natural and man-made elements. Understanding places’ genius loci allows built-environment practitioners to identify the particularities and potentialities of a place: an important starting point towards improving the quality of public places based on context. Urban public space, the outdoor built environment, can be improved by promoting distinctiveness, which is an important element for tourism, place marketing, and place branding. However, this promising genius loci approach to public place quality is latent and has not been fully studied and used in Zimbabwe. This is happening at a time when public places are deteriorating and lacking attention in urban settlements in Zimbabwe. While raising a torch on the natural and man-made aspects in both rural and urban, this study seeks to unlock the Beitbridge-ness of Beitbridge to enhance urban Beitbridge public space quality. The study follows a qualitative design with a phenomenological strategy of enquiry, which is a window to study the Beitbridge ‘life world’ and taken for granted the elements of ‘genius loci’. Data were collected through interviews, documentary analysis, and systematic observation of selected public places. The interview respondents, namely Beitbridge development practitioners (municipality senior officers, Rural District Council senior officers, and Rural District Development Committee members) and Beitbridge senior citizens, were selected by purposive sampling. Data were analysed through themes and images. The findings of this study will stand as a record of Beitbridge ‘genius loci’ and subsequently give direction in the planning, design, and management of public places. The study has generated a framework for ‘genius loci-public place’ that will guide the Beitbridge public space system, micro- and macro-level urban planning.

Nicholas Muleya

Chapter 15. From a Pre-colonial Dzimbabwe Capital to a Colonial Fort and Beyond: Understanding Masvingo City’s Governance Traditions and Growth Patterns

Abstract

Zimbabwe’s urban history and governance traditions are not fully told without Masvingo’s story. The city’s rich and unique governance and growth stories draw on its proximity to Great Zimbabwe and related tourism assets, being the oldest urban settlement and having hosted the first colonial Fort and the socio-economic structure of its hinterland. Unfortunately, Masvingo City’s political, social, and economic importance in Zimbabwe is often inadequately understood. This denies Zimbabwe’s urban planning and governance some critical lessons. Drawing on the literature, key informant interviews, focus group discussion (FGD) sessions, and a household survey targeting Old Mucheke and Victoria Ranch households, this paper discusses lessons based on the city’s governance and spatial growth. Characterising the city’s colonial and post-colonial urbanisation and local governance processes surfaces lessons for urban Zimbabwe and other parts of Southern Africa. The uniqueness of the city’s policies and strategies from the perspectives of urban sustainability and resilience is revealed. Its distinct transition and impacts on urban policy, both in need of further inquiry, are partially illuminated.

Kudzai Chatiza, Tariro Nyevera

Chapter 16. The Future of Secondary Cities in (Southern) Africa: Concluding Remarks and Research Agenda

Abstract

Since colonial times, secondary cities in southern Africa have been in a state of flux yet have been central in promoting and stabilising local governance. They balance and filter centre-local relations differently from capital and metropolitan cities, creating unique spatial and economic efficiencies as well as problems. Their realities, pressures, and opportunities yield different dividends to their immediate communities and transcend national and international development interests. These multiple roles are inadequately understood, yet they remain strong as secondary cities are living open systems acting as laboratories for experimentation and domestication of new urbanism innovations, such as smart cities and sustainable development goals (SDGs). They provide nodes for better advancing new ways of managing rapid urbanisation and the various layers of urban informalities. Reflecting on the past and present of secondary cities’ spatial planning and governance dynamics offers exciting scenario-building opportunities that inform engagement with urban futures linked to models that create resilient cities that are competitive, just, and sustainable. This chapter uses a thematic approach to reflect on the main messages proffered by various chapter contributions to this book. The chapter captures practical ways of negotiating the cracks, curves, and contours of urbanity and the post-colonial spatial identities and economies of African secondary cities. The policy, planning, and decision-making implications of a refreshed understanding of the storyline of secondary cities demonstrate the complementary and catalytic roles they play in allocating and managing socio-economic and spatial growth dividends in rapidly extending southern African urban landscapes.

James Chakwizira, Abraham R. Matamanda, Verna Nel, Kudzai Chatiza

Backmatter

Titel: Secondary Cities and Local Governance in Southern Africa
herausgegeben von: Abraham R. Matamanda
James Chakwizira
Kudzai Chatiza
Verna Nel
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Electronic ISBN: 978-3-031-49857-2
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-49856-5
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-49857-2