The cases of New Zealand and Brazil
Why some countries have adopted a more technocratic approach than others in regard to the pandemic – meaning that technocratic authority has been more pronounced in some and much less so in others – would seem to depend on a range of political, institutional, social and constitutional factors, and on diverse political cultures. There is no space here to explore these differences, suffice it to say that whereas in New Zealand a strongly technocratic approach has been adopted and politically accepted, in Brazil this has not been the case, and the government’s response to the pandemic has been driven overwhelmingly by political considerations.
At the time of writing, according to Worldometer, New Zealand had a Covid-19 death rate of five deaths per million people, compared to Brazil’s 2,804 deaths per million. High levels of public compliance were generated in New Zealand in 2020, with the prime minister appealing regularly to ‘the team of five million’ to cooperate in ‘eliminating’ viral spread. However, after a major Delta outbreak in the highly populated and economically crucial Auckland region in August 2021 the government found itself under much more political pressure to loosen the restrictions it imposed over several weeks.
By contrast, in the Brazilian case there has never been political or scientific consensus in addressing Covid-19. Wildavsky (
1979, Chap. 5) has argued that rationality in public policymaking is not to be understood as an instrumentally future-oriented and goal-driven selection of means and ends, but is as much a retrospective process of explaining and politically justifying actions which have emerged from a complex decision-making process. This is apparent in how the Brazilian government handled the discourse around vaccines. The president went from claiming in December 2020 that those taking the vaccine ‘would turn into alligators’
8 and that he would not take the vaccine himself, to praising his own government, in March 2021, for its progress in vaccinating the population, as if this had been the plan all along.
In New Zealand, the government’s catch cry of ‘go hard, go early’ was emblematic of its strategy, which emerged as a mixture of informed responses to a variety of changing and uncertain circumstances. If the government could not be sure about what it was doing – after all, the pandemic was a completely new experience for all concerned – then it had to speak as if it did. The inevitable impact of a dynamic and highly fluid set of political preferences and priorities on the use of science cannot, therefore, be ignored. Despite being inherent to the nature of political action, bargaining and negotiation processes can be conducted in many different ways and can lead to quite different scenarios when it comes to the use of scientific advice.
Such advice has been lauded where governments have been relatively successful in responding to the virus, as in New Zealand, and it has also been praised in absentia where governments have failed to do so, as in Brazil. In the former case politicians were seen to have done a good job by drawing upon and applying sound scientific advice, while in the latter case politicians have been condemned for largely disregarding or directly opposing it. In the former a technocratic approach has prevailed for the common good, but in the latter politics has prevailed against the public good, as will be discussed below.
Figure
1 depicts the heuristic matrix of good and bad science and good and bad politics, in sovereign states.
In New Zealand the top health bureaucrat is the director-general of health (Dr Ashley Bloomfield, a medical professional) who heads the Ministry of Health. He has exercised his emergency powers under the Health Act 1956, and the Covid-19 Public Health Response Act 2020, allowing him to command medical officers of health in each of the country’s 20 District Health Boards (DHBs). So this has not been normal governance in normal times (Gregory,
2021).
The Labour Party-led cabinet in 2020 and its Labour Party successor in 2021 have been heavily reliant on Bloomfield’s expert advice, and that provided through him by other epidemiologists and statistical modellers. This reliance has been repeatedly confirmed publicly by the prime minister, Jacinda Ardern, who has prefaced her announcements with, ‘On the advice of the director-general…’, seemingly to say that ‘politics’ has rightfully been taken out of these science-based decisions. But this is hardly the case, because the government has to weigh a range of factors, including the economic effects of lockdowns. So its decisions are inescapably political, rather than purely scientific, choices.
This was confirmed publicly early in November 2021 when Ardern changed her phraseology to, ‘After a discussion with the director-general [of health]’ the government had decided to lower the alert level in Auckland. Questioning by journalists confirmed that Bloomfield had advised against doing so. The effects of political pressures on the government, including protests by many Aucklanders, had become more apparent. By this time the government had shifted its strategy from on of ‘elimination’, as applied during 2020, to ‘suppression’ or ‘containment’, given that the Delta outbreak had now made it impossible to keep the virus out of the community. Its urgent push for high vaccination rates, with the Pfizer vaccine, had now become the key plank of its new approach. The former alert level structure – with level four being full lockdown as had applied across the country in March-April 2020, was now replaced by a Covid-19 Protection Framework, colloquially known as the ‘traffic light’ system, whereby different regions had greater or lesser restrictions placed on them, largely based on factors such as vaccination, infection, and hospitalization rates. A ‘red’ area was most heavily constrained – by way of limits of gatherings, access to bars and cafes, retail outlets and so on being dependent on having an official vaccine confirming that the holder had received their double vaccination. Life in ‘green’ locations could proceed as in 2020, when there was no Covid-19 in the community, but by the end of 2021 no part of New Zealand was classified as ‘green’. ‘Orange’ regions were less constrained than ‘red’ ones and more so that ‘green’ ones would have been.
The relationship between the prime minister, the Covid-19 response minister, and Bloomfield is fully consistent with the conventions of responsible government embodied in New Zealand’s Westminster-styled parliamentary democracy, with its unitary governmental system. However, it is also a case of virtual technocratic governance, so unusually reliant is the political executive on scientific advice in this case of public policymaking. In this the New Zealand government has tried to strike a politically acceptable balance between the ‘precautionary principle’ and the ‘principle of necessity’. That is, it has decided to be ‘better safe than sorry’ while at the same not restricting people’s rights and liberties disproportionately to the risk of the virus overwhelming the country’s public health system and sharply increasing the mortality rate (Raposo,
2021). Empirical research confirms that the public policy choices made during the pandemic involve ‘morally problematic trade-offs’ (Belle and Cantarelli,
2022).
This political-technocratic approach to the crisis, as also in Norway (Christensen and Laegreid,
2020), has so far been politically rewarded. Although New Zealand’s 2020 general election was postponed for a month, from September to October, because of the pandemic, it resulted in a landslide win for the Labour Party, which now enjoys the first single-party Parliamentary majority since the introduction of proportional representation in 1996. Undoubtedly, this electoral success was firmly grounded on the Labour-led government’s performance in handling the pandemic, and the high profile leadership of a widely popular prime minister.
Although the effects of bad politics can be disastrous, the fact that good science can check bad politics over time is well exemplified by the Brazilian case. Brazil is a relatively new liberal democracy, re-established in 1985 after almost 20 years of military dictatorship. It has a federal political system, with 26 states and one federal district. In healthcare, the federal government retains responsibility for publishing guidance and information, buying essential resources, and providing technical assistance to states. Its role is essential in aiding states, especially in poorer areas of the country. Brazilian constitutional laws and conventions have, over the past three decades, enabled reasonable levels of political and civil rights, as well as freedom of speech and social debate.
This relative stability came under strain, however, after president Dilma Rousseff’s impeachment in April 2016, and the election of Bolsonaro in January 2019. These political events were followed by a new wave of political and civil rights conflicts. Atrocities such as the murdering of the Brazilian politician and human rights/LGBT activist Marielle Franco in 2018, and the murder of more and more indigenous rights leaders and environmental activists, show that the current Brazilian politics is far removed from the Habermasian ideal of an impartial and inclusive communicative democracy.
9,10,11.
Not surprisingly, when it comes to the impacts of ‘bad politics’ on the management of Covid-19, Brazil is one of the most representative world cases. Unlike New Zealand, where the public has been mostly compliant and supportive of the often draconian measures proposed by the government, the Brazilian population and local federal governments have been highly polarised and noncompliant. Worldometer had recorded a death toll of about 600,000 and about 21.5 million cases by October 2021, and the country had been through a series of medical system collapses and through several levels and types of social restrictions.
Brazil’s central government has consistently denied the seriousness of the Covid-19 pandemic. This denial led to a federal crisis, in which state governors published their own restriction guidelines, bought vaccines and other resources, and even published basic information after the federal ministry of health stopped publishing Covid-19 related data on its official website
12. Scientific advice has been constantly delegitimised by Bolsonaro’s government (for example, regarding mask usage and the size of public gatherings
13), but local initiatives such as the Northeast or the Sao Paulo scientific committees have contributed to the creation of local restriction protocols and the diffusion of sound information. On numerous occasions state governors had to judicially secure their decision-making autonomy in what became a highly confrontational and fragmented dispute between local and central governments.
Bolsonaro himself fostered scientific dissensus around the management of Covid-19. In May 2020 the minister of health, Nelson Teich, an oncologist, was forced to resign after opposing, on scientific grounds, Bolsonaro’s and the Federal Council of Medicine’s preference for the wider use of the anti-malarial drugs hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine as treatments for severe cases of Covid-19. Bolsonaro deliberately delayed the purchase of Covid-19 vaccines, and publicly questioned their safety and efficacy. By 2020 other Latin American countries such as Chile and Colombia had begun to negotiate the purchase of vaccines, but Brazil declined a 70 million dose contract offered by Pfizer
14, causing a procurement delay that is now being investigated in a formal senate inquiry
15.
Brazilian research institutes such as Fiocruz and Butantan started to negotiate their own independent agreements. Fiocruz, from Rio de Janeiro negotiating the purchase of the Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine, and the Sao Paulo-based Butantan negotiating the purchase of the Chinese Sinovac and the technological transfer for local production of the Brazilian CoronaVac. The ministry of health approved Fiocruz’ purchase but vetoed Butantan’s negotiations with China, arguing that the Chinese vaccine was unsafe. After a heated political clash between Sao Paulo’s governor Joao Doria and Bolsonaro, CoronaVac was approved and became the first Covid-19 vaccine to be applied in the country, in January 2021. By October 2021, 79,65% of Sao Paulo’s state population had received the first dose, while only 50,85% of the people in poorer states such as Roraima had received one
16.
In short, Brazil is a clear case of the domination of scientific debate by political preferences, in the case of Covid-19, and stands in marked contrast to New Zealand’s example of technocratically-dominated politics. While both countries could invest in a more democratically healthy balance between science and politics, the pandemic experience shows that the public good is threatened much more by scientific negationism than by competent technocratic management.
Relative policy success and failure: a moveable political feast
Policy success and failure can be measured in different ways, and in the case of Covid-19 circumstances are so fluid that any judgements about ‘success’ and ‘failure’ can only be tentative. The Bloomberg Covid Resilience Ranking (CRR) of 53 countries and jurisdictions uses 12 data indicators, including virus containment, the quality of health case, vaccination rates, mortality rates, and the easing of border restrictions. At July 2021 New Zealand held third position and Brazil was listed at 35. However, by late September 2021 New Zealand’s ranking had dropped from first to 38th place
17, as the country grappled with a Delta outbreak, while Brazil had moved three places up to 32. (It has been argued that the drastic change in New Zealand’s ranking, despite the fact that it has very low infection and mortality rates when compared to most other countries, reflects the CRR’s bias against measures which adversely affect business interests.
18)
Although, New Zealand’s Labour government has led substantially in the political polls throughout 2021, its support has been declining markedly since the 2020 election, which was seen by many as ‘the Covid election’, a one-off political phenomenon (see Levine,
2021). The Delta outbreak of August 2021 meant that the country’s largest city, Auckland, was locked down for more than three months. The government therefore has faced even more pressure from badly affected business interests, from having to manage high MIQ demand from New Zealanders wanting to return home from other countries, and from people wanting to travel to and from Australia and some Pacific islands. At the same time, the government’s urgent programme of national vaccination, though generally successful – 90% of the population were fully vaccinated by mid-December 2021 – has aroused a vocal minority against vaccine mandates and the loss of personal liberties. Also, in late December 2021 the government was found by the Waitangi Tribunal to have breached the Treaty of Waitangi for ‘political convenience’ by rejecting the advice of the Director-General of Health and the Ministry of Health to take particular steps to safeguard Māori against the spread of the virus.
19 Moreover, many people have complained that the shift from the alert level system of elimination to the ‘traffic light’ strategy of suppression has been confusing, despite the government’s concerted pains to explain the change and the reasons for it. In short, the politics of the pandemic had by the end of 2021 become a rapidly moveable feast.
Many factors contribute to the relative success or failure of different countries’ handling of the pandemic. Geography is one such factor, while others may be cultural and social and (healthcare) institutional, apart from being political. The respective roles of the news media and social media are also crucial. It may also be pertinent that while New Zealand is ranked first equal (with Denmark) in the Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index of 2020, Brazil is in equal 94th place. Similarly, the rate of trust in government in Brazil, 36%, is much lower than the New Zealand rate of 63% (OECD,
2021). As Christensen et al. (
2016) argue, effective crisis management demands high levels of governance capacity and public legitimacy.
There is no space here to elaborate on the relevance of these variables, except to say that geography is clearly a major difference, one that certainly affects the efficacy of Covid-19 responses. New Zealand is a small country of 5.2 million people, comprising three main islands, so its borders can be sealed quite quickly and effectively. It has extensive and relatively unpopulated rural spaces outside of its cities and towns. Brazil on the other hand with a population of 213 million is a huge land mass, and shares borders with 10 other countries. Cultural and social factors must also influence the different policy outcomes.
Nevertheless, it is inconceivable that any country could be relatively successful in controlling the pandemic within its borders without heavy reliance on epidemiological and immunological expertise, whether provided endogenously or exogenously. What may matter even more is the extent to which policymakers act on strongly consensual or highly conflictual scientific advice, and whether political leadership explicitly embraces scientific advice, as in New Zealand, or whether it undermines social trust in scientific advice, as in Brazil.
Hypothetically speaking, when policymakers are confronted by strongly conflicted scientific advice political considerations are more likely to influence their decisions than when the converse is the case. But where political polarisation is so extreme that it undermines trust in scientific advice, a moderate level of scientific consensus is not enough in itself to foster a productive relationship between science and politics.