17. Structural Characterization

The aim of this chapter is to convey the basic principles of X-ray and electron diffraction, as used in the structural characterization of semiconductor heterostructures. A number of key concepts associated with radiation–material and particle–material interactions are introduced, with emphasis placed on the nature of the signal used for sample interrogation. Various modes of imaging and electron diffraction are then described, followed by a brief appraisal of the main techniques used to prepare electron-transparent membranes for TEM analysis. A number of case studies on electronic and photonic material systems are then presented in the context of a growth or device development program; these emphasize the need to use complementary techniques when characterizing a given heterostructure.