The advice of the wise

Beginning with the earliest happiness advice that has come down to us through human history, we meet considerable divergence. By 500 B.C. Chinese philosophers had already formed three schools in classic Chinese philosophy: Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. These schools have different views on how one should live. Confucianism inspires people to take care of others and to live a virtuous life. Its central concepts are friendship, family, responsibility, duty, learning, tolerance, conversation and reflection upon oneself. Taoism is much more individualistic and mystical than Confucianism and has little to say about serving society, but more about finding a balance between self and others, and self and nature. People should follow the natural order of things. In Buddhism suffering takes the central role. The world is continually changing, the messages we receive from our senses are illusory and it is impossible to escape suffering, except by seeking liberation from a self-centered existence. This escape is possible by giving up social ties and even pleasant feelings (Guoqing & Veenhoven, this issue).

European philosophers do not agree among themselves about the road to happiness either (Annas, 1993). The early Greek philosopher Epicurus maintained that everybody can reach the state of feeling pleasant by following the ‘four-part cure’: ‘don’t fear God, don’t worry about death, what is good is easy to get, and what is terrible is easy to endure’. Rules number three and four need the most explanation. According to Epicurus feeling good is easy, because absence of pain is enough. All we have to do is to fulfil our desires in a sensible way, so we don’t get hooked on sensory pleasures. Pain is easy to endure, because chronic pain is not very intense and acute pain is not a problem either because it will not last long (Bergsma, Poot, & Liefbroer, this issue).

In contrast, the 19th century German philosopher Schopenhauer did not believe in true happiness, and the best possibility one had was a life relatively free from pain. Life is better if one’s complaints are trivial and boredom sets in; since not much good is to be expected from life, it is wise to try to be satisfied with as little as possible, and not to ask for more. Personality is considered an important factor for happiness (Schalkx & Bergsma, this issue).

Modern advice in the tradition of ‘New Age’ is rather diverse, but several common themes can be identified. New Age advice stresses the importance of spirituality, finding one’s true self and attaining self-knowledge. People are advised to trust their gut-feelings and to distrust experts. The need to connect with family, partners and all things in the universe is another theme. Meditation, positive thinking and the need to take control of one’s life are also prominent. The last themes are living healthily and simply (Berg, this issue).

Modern ‘self-help’ authors also form a heterogeneous group. They offer a blend of personal wisdom with ideas drawn from different schools of psychology. In general they seem to be influenced by humanistic psychology. They stress things like self-actualization, self-understanding, autonomy, tolerance, development of skills and finding meaning and purpose in life (Bergsma, this issue).

The different ideas about happiness are not just a consequence of the purely individual preferences of the people who gave the advice. The conditions of living at the time had a strong bearing on the sort of advice given, although the same circumstances also gave rise to different concepts regarding ways to become happy.

Guoqing and Veenhoven (this issue) discuss three classic Chinese philosophies: Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. The first two arose in China about 2,500 years ago, the last was imported from India 500 years after that. Ancient China was an agrarian society, where most people lived in close-knit communities, often in harsh conditions. The happiness advice was primarily aimed at nobility, people who had the means to support philosophers.

Epicurus (341–271 B.C.) lived at a time when philosophy flourished––the Hellenistic period in Greece. It was a time of great social and political upheaval, the mingling of different cultures and the decline of the city-state. Epicurus promised his followers happiness if they would live alongside him in a predictable community called The Garden. His philosophy can be partly understood as a way of dealing with the political instability, wars and dynastic struggles and the feelings of alienation many felt at this time (Bergsma, Poot, & Liefbroer, this issue).

The philosophy of Schopenhauer (1788–1860), the founder of pessimism, is by no means a logical consequence of the great social circumstances of his time. It is more likely that Schopenhauer’s own place in society was a driving force behind his happiness advice. He was part of the elite and worked in universities, but his ideas did not receive the acclaim that Schopenhauer felt they were entitled to. His social life and relationships did not bring him satisfaction either; his happiness advice can be thought of as a way of convincing himself that what he was missing was not important. Just like the fox decided in the fable of Aesop that the grapes must be sour as he could not reach them (Schalkx & Bergsma, this issue).

The New Age movement and psychological self-help books have gained importance in modern, individualistic multiple-choice societies. New Age thinkers are part of a counter culture that seems to rebel against the rationality and perceived harshness of modern societies. The happiness advice is in part a logical consequence of this position. New Age thinkers give the advice to connect with others, find your true self, distrust experts and live a simple life (Berg, this issue). Psychological self-help authors take an intermediate position between the counter and regular culture. They use ideas and theories drawn from all schools of psychology and are therefore more closely linked to the academic psychology establishment. Yet they take the liberty to cherry pick ideas, often without much concern for empirical data. Self-help authors are not taken very seriously by academic psychologists and are often ridiculed, although several renowned psychologists have written self-help books (Bergsma, this issue).

The social background of happiness advisers certainly plays a part in the forming of their views on happiness, and how they counsel happiness, but their view on the world is even more important. The classic Chinese philosophers had different views on life. For Confucius life was about kindness and the concern for the well-being of others. The social group, society and conduct within it played a central part in the thinking of Confucius and it was up to the individual to function well in this context. Confucianism is also characterized by rationalism and optimism. Confucians believe that humans can realize their own ends, through their own ability, power and effort. Happiness is to be achieved by living virtuously. Taoism placed emphasis on Nature. This philosophy is more mystical and deals with the balance between human beings and Nature, between individuals and society, between oneself and other. The laws of Nature are considered all-powerful, so the best option is to follow the ‘Tao’, and not try to change it. Happiness is something that happens to you, when you no longer try to control the circumstances of life. Buddhism teaches that the world is continually in flux, and that people should liberate themselves from a self-centered existence in which suffering is inevitable. Buddhism has a more negative view on life and the ultimate goal of life is to step out of the wheel of life and death, to cease to be reborn. People should give up their illusory desire for happiness (Guoqing and Veenhoven, this issue).

Schopenhauer was the founder of pessimism. In his view, humankind is lead by the ‘Will’ which manifests on strong desires such as for sex, food, money and company: but these desires can never be fulfilled, and pain and suffering results. Even if you reach satisfaction, it will soon be boring. In essence life is bad, but you can make the best of it in two ways. You can become an artist or try to be an ascetic and repress the desires of the Will (Schalkx & Bergsma, this issue).

An important theme in New Age is the assumption that there is a spiritual dimension that is often described in terms of omnipresent cosmic energy, love and wisdom. The various religions are all based on the same cosmic truth. Two assumptions are basic. The first is holism that refers to the interconnectedness of different elements in the universe. It is impossible to get an idea about what is happening by focusing on elements in a reductionistic way. There is a lot of room for individualism. Personal experience is central in New Age. It is a form of self-spirituality. Happiness is to be achieved by trusting your gut-feelings and finding inner peace (Berg, this issue).

The psychological self-help books also emphasize personal experience. The central theme is that you can feel good about yourself and your life if you put effort into it. The pursuit of happiness is in your own hands. Personal growth, personal relationships and coping with stress are the most central themes. The self-help authors are strongly influenced by humanistic psychology with its focus on self-actualization and authenticity. Another important theme in self-help is the emphasis on human strengths, something that self-help has in common with the new school of ‘positive psychology’ (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). The flaws and weaknesses of the individual receive less attention (Bergsma, this issue).

The differences mentioned raise questions about the reality value of all this advice. If the wise disagree so much, at least some of them must be wrong. As announced we have tried to assess the applicability of the recommendations for a happier life by considering the fit with observed conditions for happiness in present day society.