Thermal and Mineral Waters

The spread of urbanization increases water demand to satisfy both domestic and industrial aspects. In return, large volumes of wastewater will accumulate. Careful environmental studies before major urbanization projects are very important to minimize hazards due to environmental threats. The southeastern part of Cairo is one of these examples, as large amounts of wastewater were accumulated and leaked down to the ponds of Ain Al Sira, causing degradation to one of the oldest therapeutic and skin curing locations.

Three old springs in the southeastern part at the border of Cairo City, named Ain Al Sira, Khayalat Al Shorta and Abo El Soud, used to be the origin of three natural ponds. Since the removal of one of these natural ponds (Abo El Soud) about three decades ago, by filling it with stones and recycled building material, an ongoing rise of the water level of the two remaining lakes or ponds has been observed. The water surface rise of the two ponds is still continuing and is actually even flooding nearby roads and cemeteries. The origin of the groundwater is from outflows of the outcropping Tertiary rocks according to the main chemical composition of Pond Nr. 1 Khayalat Al Shorta, as also outflows of the water of the Eocene formation outcrop along the Eastern bank of the Nile valley according to the main chemical composition of Pond Nr. 2 Ain Al Sira. A remediation of the present situation would most probably only be possible by restoring the pools to their original extent and maintaining the water level by controlled drainage of the groundwater overflow, by installing a drainage system for lowering the groundwater level with small pumping stations scattered throughout the area of high groundwater levels along the main streets in the direction of the Nile (which would possibly replace the disappeared historical channel system).

The Sinai Peninsula is the Asiatic part of Egypt, covering an area of some 61,000 km². It has a triangular shape and is separated geographically from the Eastern Desert by the Gulf of Suez. Unconformable overlying the Precambrian basement is a section of Carboniferous through Eocene sedimentary rocks (shales, sandstones and limestones). Porous sandstone of Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous age, ranging in thickness from 90 to 150 m, is widespread in the northern Gulf area. This sandstone, commonly referred to as the Nubian sandstone, has hydrologic aquifer properties and is overlain by a sequence of Upper Cretaceous through Upper Eocene limestones, dolostones, chalks and marls, which act as an aquiclude to the underlying Nubian sandstone. Sinai area is characterized by superficial thermal manifestations represented by a cluster of hot springs with varying temperatures of 35–72 °C. These springs mostly issue out of fractures and are distributed along the eastern shore of the Gulf of Suez. Four important thermal water therapeutic sites in Sinai, namely Oyun Mousa, Ras Sidr, Hammam Pharaoun and Hammam Mousa, which are located on the eastern shore of the Gulf of Suez, have been described.

In the spring of 2002 and summer of 2003 two research surveys were carried out in eastern Anatolia. The hydrogeological/hydrochemical investigations undertaken in the spring of 2002 revealed a dramatic situation of the water supply in several villages in the Dogubeyazit area, manifesting fluoride concentrations largely above the 1 ppm WHO limit of fluoride concentration in drinking water. The severity of the resulting health problems was confirmed by a dental and general health survey in three villages where the available water supply contained 6–8 ppm of fluoride. Consequently, this hydrogeological study will attempt to contribute to the alleviation of this problem by the following: (i) to survey the existing situation with regards to the current use of groundwater provided by the existing springs, and boreholes, (ii) to propose a new distribution network of groundwater resources with low fluoride concentration in order to lower its intake thus improving health and quality of life of the affected population.

Budapest is a major spa center with numerous thermal baths that are open to the public. Thermal spas in Budapest were first developed by the Romans and followed by the Turks, present spas were built mainly in the 19th and 20th centuries. At the city of Budapest the Danube River flows along a geological fault which separates the Buda Hills from the Great Plain. Within this fault zone in the vicinity of the Danube more than 100 thermal springs are arising yielding totally about 40,000 m³ per day of warm mineral water. In this study the results of thermal, chemical and isotope analyses (including tritium and chlorine-36) of 12 thermal springs and wells are presented. These results are interpreted with respect to the origin and recharge conditions of the investigated thermal waters.

This chapter deals with the curative mud resources of salty lakes and mud volcanoes in Crimea Peninsula. There are unique resources of salt lakes brine, salts, curative muds, as well as mineral and thermal water. The medicinal potential of salt lakes of Crimea is very high in which there are 35 salt lakes and 33 mud volcanoes within Kerch Peninsula. Most of the lakes of the Crimea are of marine origin with a permanent infiltration of water from the sea. They are sulphatic type. Total capacity of mud deposits of the Crimea is estimated at about 32,279 mln m³.

The Polish part of the Carpathians is the region in which thermal water potential is still under investigation and exploration, mainly due to complex geological structure and variable hydrogeological settings. Excluding the quite well recognized area of the Podhale artesian basin, the huge area of the so-called Outer Carpathians is poorly recognized with respect to thermal water occurrence, resources and possibilities of their utilization. In the current study, to shed some light on the occurrence and origin of potential resources of thermal waters in different parts of the Carpathian Geothermal Province, five exemplary thermal waters have been taken into consideration. Their chemical and isotopic compositions have been shown in the light of the hydrogeological and thermal conditions of their occurrence. The Podhale basin, located within the Inner Carpathian Geothermal Region, is the best recognized with respect to thermal water occurrence. The main horizons of thermal waters occur at a depth of 1,000–3,500 m and are linked to Eocene carbonates and Middle Triassic limestones and dolomites. The meteoric origin of thermal waters, vicinity of the recharge area, low mineralization of waters (≤2.6 g/dm³) and favorable thermal conditions (outflow temperature of waters in the lower part of the hydrogeothermal systems reaches 86 °C) make this region the most perspective and the most developed with respect to thermal waters utilization. The Outer Carpathians Geothermal Province is composed entirely of flysch-type sedimentary rocks from Late Jurassic (western part) and Early Cretaceous (eastern part) to Oligocene. The characteristic feature of the Outer Carpathians is a complex, folded and thrusted structure. The distinction of individual hydrogeothermal systems is hardly possible. The thermal waters are usually brackish, saline and brine; in the eastern part they are associated with oil and gas deposits. The outflow temperatures usually do not exceed 45–50 °C and well discharges are low. The recharge areas for thermal waters are still not known; their origin is poligenetic and their resources might be limited. Also the thermal conditions in the area of flysch Carpathians seem to still be poorly recognized, reveal variable character but locally might be very promising.

The springs in Helwan, southern suburb of Cairo, were known since the Pharaonic era. Also, the curative features of the Ain Helwan spring waters were first discovered by the ancient Egyptians. Nowadays the area of occurrence of Helwan springs is considerably polluted and turned into barren wasteland. The chapter shows the actual chemical composition of waters from two types of Helwan springs, namely the mineral springs and the sulfur springs containing the H₂S. The hydrogeological conditions of the occurrence of the springs are presented in the light of their vulnerability to antropopression.

Determination and collection of major ion chemistry for Victorian groundwater was initiated by the Geological Survey in about 1855. The Survey collection is the major source of groundwater information, although in the last two decades water authorities and industry bodies have gathered large amounts of information. The data set compiled for examination of the occurrence of the bicarbonate ion is a synthesis of data from mainly government sources and represents samples mainly from farm bores, government investigation holes and petroleum exploration drilling. Overall bicarbonate is the second most abundant anion in Victorian groundwater with a salinity above 300 mg/L Total Dissolved Salts (TDS). A concentration of 800 mg/L bicarbonate was selected to define the class of high bicarbonate alkalinity groundwater. The occurrence of high bicarbonate groundwater in Victoria has been examined in relation to hydrogeological setting. The chemical evolution to a high bicarbonate groundwater type is observed in a number of different geological systems. Different facies may be identified based on the pH and the predominance of anions and cations including iron. Within each aquifer type, high bicarbonate groundwater can occur within the flow system: in mixing and flushing zones, in hypersaline environments, and spectacularly associated with waste disposal plumes. Geological associations include: fluviatile and alluvial aquifers, extensive aquifers of the coastal sedimentary basins, and the low flow fissure networks in bedrock of the gently undulating ranges of Central Victoria. In the sedimentary coastal basins a common association is with aquifers containing accessory concentrations of carbonate, carbonaceous matter and pyrite. The facies in these aquifers can develop over a short distance and may occur in strata enveloped within other strata containing significantly different water quality. In Central Victoria, Lower Palaeozoic rocks frequently exhibit an association between the occurrence of high bicarbonate groundwater and labile interbedded, lithic and arkosic sandstones with pyritic carbonaceous shales that exhibit deep kaolinised weathering profiles. In deep bedrock mining activities of nineteenth century in Central Victoria dewatering of large volumes of the rock mass took place. Gradually this resulted in a freshening of the groundwater extracted and suggested a localized increase in flow and recharge to the bedrock. A century later and more than 70 years after the dewatering operations stopped, mineral exploration bores encountered groundwater on the same gold fields with increased sulphate and bicarbonate concentrations. The high bicarbonate concentrations had been re-established as a consequence of reaction with sulphide and carbonate minerals.

A large volume of groundwater is extracted from oilfields, along with oil. Therefore, the processing of oilfield water can be commercially useful. Unfortunately, in most cases oilfield water is not in use; a great amount of it disposes onto land surface that causes major environmental problems. Bromine and iodine are the most prospective for extraction from oilfield waters. Bromine waters widely occur within oilfields of East-European and Siberian platforms. Oilfield waters often contain much iodine. There are some regularities of iodine accumulation in groundwater. Boron, magnesium, lithium and strontium can also be found in oilfield water in commercial concentrations. In Russia, the problem of extraction of industrially valuable components from groundwater has been investigated for a long time. Most attention was paid to bromine and iodine extraction. In Russia, various hydrogeological structures with common regularities of industrially valuable groundwater prevalence can be combined into six industrially valuable water provinces according to geological and hydrogeological criteria. Great reserves and a variety of industrially valuable waters in Russia allow extraction of a great number of useful components. It is necessary to develop technologies of the extraction of lithium, strontium, copper, zinc, rubidium, cesium, potassium, magnesium and other components from oilfield water.